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1 Clinical Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Volume 24 ㆍ Number 1 ㆍ April 2017 REVIEW ARTICLE 소아정맥혈전색전증 최형수 서울대학교의과대학분당서울대학교병원소아과학교실 Venous Thromboembolism in Children Hyoung Soo Choi, M.D., Ph.D. Department of Pediatrics, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea Although the incidence of venous thromboembolism (VTE) is significantly lower than in adults, recognition of VTE in children is increasing as advanced medical care enhances treatment intensity in pediatric patients. VTE in children usually develops as a secondary complication of underlying clinical conditions such as venous catheterization, malignancy, infections, trauma, surgery, and inherited or acquired thrombophilia, of which venous catheterization poses the highest risk. Neonates are at the greatest risk for VTE with a second peak in incidence during adolescence. There is some debate regarding which patients should have testing for inherited risk factors such as factor V Leiden, prothrombin G20210A, protein C-, protein S- and antithrombin deficiency. Guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of VTE in children are mostly extrapolated from adult data, despite the uniqueness of pediatric hemostatic system. The most common treatment is unfractionated heparin or low molecular weight heparin with vitamin K antagonist, whereas newly developed direct oral anticoagulants are under discussion and have been evaluated in only a small number of clinical trials in pediatric patients. Prospective multicenter collaborative research is necessary to develop validated guidelines for the diagnosis, antithrombotic therapy, prevention and follow-up monitoring of pediatric VTE. Key Words: Venous thromboembolism, Children pissn / eissn Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2017;24:1 10 Received on April 13, 2017 Revised on April 19, 2017 Accepted on April 20, 2017 Corresponding Author: Hyoung Soo Choi Department of Pediatrics, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, 82 Gumi-ro, 173-Beon-gil, Bundang-gu, Seongnam 13620, Korea Tel: Fax: choihs1786@snubh.org ORCID ID: orcid.org/ x 서론혈전증 (thrombosis) 은 Virchow triad인혈류정체, 혈관내벽의손상, 그리고과응고상태의 3가지가단독으로혹은여러인자가함께작용하여발생한다 [1]. 동맥혈전증에서는혈관내벽의손상이중요한원인이지만정맥혈전증에서는혈류정체와과응고상태가주된위험인자로작용한다 [2,3]. 정맥혈전색전증 (venous thromboembolism, VTE) 은심부정맥혈전증 (deep vein thrombosis, DVT) 과폐색전증 (pulmonary embolism, PE) 을포함하는데성인과비교할때소아에서는 드물게발생하는질환이지만점차발생빈도가증가하는경향을보이고있다 [4-6]. 이는소아중환자에대한치료가발달하면서침습적인혈관시술과기구사용이늘어남에따라혈전증이합병증으로나타나는경우가증가하고혈전증과관련된유전적위험인자에대한인식이높아졌기때문이다 [5,7,8]. 소아 VTE는성인과는달리대부분기저질환으로패혈증, 암, 선천심질환, 혹은중심정맥카테터삽입같은시술후이차성으로발생하며가장흔한위험인자는중심정맥카테터이다 [9-11]. 비록소아연령에서 VTE가증가하고있는추세이지만아직도희귀한질환으로서전향적인임상시험이어렵고근거중심의학이부족하여진단과치료의지침을성인의연구결과에서추 1

2 Hyoung Soo Choi 정하고있다 [12-14]. 이종설에서는소아 VTE의역학, 병인, 증상, 진단과치료에대해정리하고앞으로의연구방향을제시하고자한다. 역학소아 VTE는성인과비교하여대규모역학연구가많지않은데최초의전향적인역학연구는 Andrew 등이 1994년에발표한캐나다의등록연구이다 [9]. 소아연령의 VTE는연간전체소아 10,000명당 명이발생하고소아입원환자 10,000명당 5.3명그리고신생아중환자실에입원한신생아 10,000명당 24명인것으로나타났다 [9,15]. 호발연령은두개의봉우리 (bimodal peak) 를보이는데신생아를포함한 1세미만의영아에서가장많이발생하고이어서청소년연령의환자가두번째를차지한다 [9,16,17]. 미국의 3차병원에서는소아 VTE의빈도가더높으며 2001년에서 2007년까지소아환자 10,000명당 34명에서 58명으로 70% 가증가한것으로나타났다 [7,18]. 이것은 1990년대초반의연구 [9] 보다 10배정도높은수치이다. 소아 VTE는아시아보다혈전증발생빈도가높은서구에서주로연구가되었고유전적배경및인구학적특성의차이를고려할때우리나라에서역학조사가필요하지만연구결과는드물다. 2008년한국에서전국을대상으로한역학조사에서 VTE의연간빈도는인구 10만명당 13.8명이었고 [19] 이것은백인에서인구 10만명당 143명인것에비하여낮은수치였다 [19]. 또한 0-19세까지소아청소년연령에서는인구 10만명당 0.09명으로성인에서보다훨씬낮은빈도를보였다 [9]. 최근단일기관연구에서는소아환자 1만명당 3.27명의 VTE 환자를보고하였고 [20] 이는우리나라전체소아에서의빈도보다높지만서구의발표보다는현저하게낮은수치이다 [8,15,21]. 병인 1) 소아응고계의특성성인과비교하여소아에서 VTE의빈도가유의하게낮은이유는보호기전 (protective mechanism) 이존재하기때문인것으로생각하고있다 [17,22]. 선천성으로항트롬빈, C단백, S단백결핍이있는경우에도 10대후반까지는혈전증이잘발생하지않고또한후천성위험인자에의한혈전증도소아에서는성인보다유의하게낮은빈도를보이는데예를들어신증후군에서혈전증은소아에서 2% 정도로발생하여성인에서 20% 와차이가있다 [13]. 또한소아에서복부수술이나하지의정형 외과적수술을하는경우에성인에서와는달리예방적항응고제요법을하지않는데혈전증이매우드물게발생하기때문이다 [13]. 이렇게선천적혹은후천적인위험인자가있어도혈전증의위험이상당히낮은것은소아에서보호기전이작용한다는것을시사하며가장가능성있는기전은응고인자의연령에따른변화이다 [17,22]. 소아에서연령에따라응고계가발달한다는 developmental hemostasis 의개념이알려져있는데혈액응고에관여하는단백질의농도가연령별로유의한차이가있는것이그증거이다 [17,22,23]. 신생아에서는비타민 K 의존성응고인자 (II, VII, IX, X) 와, 접촉인자 (XI, XII, 프리칼리크레인과 HMWK) 가성인수치의 50% 정도이고트롬빈형성속도도성인보다낮아서출혈위험성이증가할수있다 [13,17,22]. 이러한수치들은생후첫주에빠르게증가하여대부분생후 6개월경에성인수준에도달한다. 반면이러한응고계의변화가혈액응고와섬유소용해에영향을주어응고작용을촉진할수도있다 [17]. 신생아기에비타민 K 의존성인항응고인자인 C단백과 S단백의수치가낮아서혈전형성이증가하고플라즈민을억제하는 alpha-2 macroglobulin의농도가높아서섬유소용해가저하된다 [13,24]. 2) 소아 VTE의위험인자 VTE가발생하는소아는대부분복합적인위험인자를가지고있고여러가지후천적, 유전적, 혹은해부학적인인자들을포함한다 [12] (Table 1). 이중임상적요소가유전성혈전성향증보다더큰위험인자로작용을하는데특히정맥카테터와관련된 VTE가이에해당한다 [8,10]. 소아환자에서정맥카테터는가장유의한위험인자로서신생아 VTE의 90% 와소아 VTE의 60% 와관련이있다 [9,10]. 정맥카테터는미숙아나급만성질환이있는소아에서정맥영양, 항암제치료, 투석, 항생제, 혹은지지요법을위해사용되는데내피세포에손상을주거나혈류에지장을주어혈전의위험을증가시킨다 [10,12]. 이와함께흔한위험인자는악성종양, 선천심질환, 미숙아, 외상, 감염, 만성질환, 그리고약물등이다 [6,8-10,25]. 신생아는응고계의발달특성상그이후소아연령에비하여출혈과혈전합병증이생기기쉽고정맥카테터와함께신생아가사, 산모요인, 적혈구증다증, 패혈증, 심부전, 그리고탈수등이위험인자로작용한다 [26]. 또한미숙아에서는비타민 K 의존응고인자와혈액응고억제작용을하는항트롬빈 III과 C단백이만삭아보다낮기때문에주산기위험인자나치료와관련하여혈전증의발생이증가할수있다 [26,27]. 항인지질항체증후군 (antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, APS) 은성인에서잘알려진증후군으로반복적인유산과혈 2 Vol. 24, No. 1, April 2017

3 VTE in Children Table 1. Risk factors for thrombosis in children [1,12] General Perinatal diseases Inherited thrombophilia Anatomic Medications Indwelling central venous catheter lines Infection Trauma Surgery Cancer Immobilization Cardiac disease/prosthetic valve Systemic lupus erythematosus Rheumatoid arthritis Inflammatory bowel disease Polycythemia/dehydration Nephrotic syndrome Diabetes Pregnancy Obesity Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura Birth asphyxia Prematurity Respiratory distress syndrome Infants of diabetic mothers Neonatal infections Necrotizing enterocolitis Factor V Leiden mutation Prothrombin G20210A mutation Antithrombin deficiency Protein C deficiency Protein S deficiency Homocystinuria Elevated factor VIII Dysfibrinogenemia Thoracic outlet obstruction (Paget- Schroetter syndrome) May-Thurner syndrome Absence of the inferior vena cava Estrogen-containing contraceptives L-asparaginase Heparin (heparin-induced thrombocytopenia) Corticosteroids Coagulation factor concentrates Antifibrinolytic agents 전증이특징적인데항인지질항체가혈전을유발하는이유는불명확하다 [28]. APS를진단하기위해서는임상증상및검사소견의이상이모두존재하고검사소견의이상이 12주동안지속되어야한다. 혈전증재발의위험성이높기때문에 APS 환자는장기적인항응고제치료가필요하다 [29,30]. 건강한어린이도일시적으로루프스항응고인자를가질수있는데수술전검사에서활성화부분트롬보플라스틴시간 (activated partial thromboplastin time, aptt) 의연장이나타나는것때문에 진단을하게된다 [12]. 이러한항체들은최근의바이러스감염과연관된것으로생각되며혈전의위험인자는아니다. 해부학적이상으로혈류에장애가있는경우에도어린나이에혈전이발생할수있다 [1]. 하대정맥 (inferior vena cava) 의폐색은하지의급성및만성 DVT와관련이있다 [1]. 흉곽출구폐색 (thoracic outlet obstruction, Paget-Schroetter 증후군 ) 은종종운동과관련된겨드랑이쇄골하정맥혈전 (effortrelated axillary-subclavian vein thrombosis) 으로나타난다 [31,32]. 3) 유전성혈전성향증 (hereditary thrombophilia) 유전성혈전성향증이성인에서 VTE와강한연관성이있는것으로알려져있지만소아에서는논란이있다 [5,33]. 서구의연구에서소아 VTE 환자중유전성혈전성향증이있는경우가 10-59% 를차지하였다 [2,34]. VTE가호발하는유전적요인은응고인자 V 인자이상인 Leiden V 인자, 프로트롬빈 G20210A 돌연변이, 그리고 C단백및 S단백, 항트롬빈의결핍이다 [2,34,35]. Leiden V 인자와프로트롬빈 G20210A 돌연변이는백인에서는유병율이각각약 5% 및 2% 로발생빈도가높지만아시아인에서는발견되지않는다 [36-38]. VIII 인자와호모시스테인의증가는혈전증과관련이있는데이들에대해서는잘알려지지않았고반드시유전되는것은아니다 [39]. 혈전증이있는소아환자나혹은혈전증혹은혈전성향증가족력이있는무증상인소아에서유전적혈전성향증검사의임상적유용성은성인에서와마찬가지로이견이있다 [39]. 소아에서혈전증의위험성이매우낮은것을고려할때, 유전성혈전성향증이임상적인의사결정에영향을줄가능성은적다 [12,40]. 또한혈전성향증검사는급성기치료에영향을미치는경우가드물고유전적인혈전성향증과소아혈전증의연관성은임상적상황에따라다양하다 [40]. 소아에서유발요인이없는혈전증은유전성결핍의빈도가높은반면카테터와연관된혈전증은관련성이불확실하다 [12]. 혈전증의위험은연령에따라증가하므로청소년기에혈전성향증을확인하는것이고위험상황 ( 예 : 하지부목혹은장기간의부동상태 ) 에서혈전증예방의지침을줄수있을것이다 [12]. Leiden V 인자는 V 인자유전자에서뉴클레오티드 1765 단일변화의결과이다 [36,37]. 이돌연변이는활성화된 V 인자를활성화된 C단백에의한비활성화에내성을보이게하는것으로백인에서는혈전증의가장흔한유전적위험요인이다 [36,37]. 미국백인의약 5% 가이돌연변이의이형접합체이고다른인종에서는그빈도가낮다 [12]. 이형접합체인경우정맥혈전증의위험이 5-7배증가하고동형접합체인경우에는상대 Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 3

4 Hyoung Soo Choi 위험도가 으로증가한다 [12]. 프로트롬빈 G20210A 유전자변이는 3'-untranslated region의 G가 A로변경된것으로프로트롬빈 mrna 수치가증가하게된다 [37]. 이러한변이는미국백인의약 2% 에서나타나는데 Leiden V 인자보다는 VTE의약한위험인자이며상대위험도는 2-3 정도이다 [37]. C단백, S단백, 그리고자연적인항응고단백인항트롬빈의결핍은백인에서는더욱드물지만혈전증에서좀더강한위험인자로알려졌다 [12]. 이형접합체결핍은소아기에는증상이잘나타나지않지만동형접합체는영아기에뚜렷한증상이나타날수있다 [35]. 신생아에서항트롬빈, C단백그리고 S단백의결핍으로인해전격자색반 (purpura fulminans) 이발생할수있다 [35]. 선천성대사이상중 cystathione -synthase의결핍이있는호모시스틴요증소아에서정맥과동맥혈전증의빈도가증가한다 [12]. 이는매우드문질환으로혈장의호모시스테인수치가 100 mol/l를넘는다. 더흔하게발생하는것은후천성이거나 methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) 유전자의다형성과관련되어호모시스테인이경미하거나중등도로상승한경우이다 [39]. 비록호모시스테인이중등도로상승한것이정맥및동맥혈전증과관련이있기는하지만 MTHFR 유전자의다형성은정맥혈전증과관련성이없는것으로알려졌다 [39,41]. VIII 인자의혈장농도가 >150 IU/dL로증가된것은유전적혹은환경적요인과관련이있으며혈전증의위험이증가한다 [39]. VIII 인자농도에유전성소인이강하게작용하지만 VIII 인자농도의상승과관련된분자기전은잘밝혀지지않았다. VIII 인자는급성기반응물질이고염증이있는기간에는증가할수있다 [29]. Leiden V 인자와프로트롬빈유전자돌연변이의해석은간단하지만다른혈전성향증검사에서는응고인자의연령별정상범위를참고해서신중하게판단해야한다 [41]. 또한정상범위가이형접합체결핍인경우와겹칠수있음을인식하고반복적으로검사하는것이필요하다. 임상증상급성 VTE는임상적혈전형성위험인자나유전성혈전성향증, 가족력과함께특징적인임상양상이있을때의심하게된다 [1]. VTE의징후와증상은해부학적위치와침범된장기에따라달라지고정맥폐색과만성화정도에따라영향을받는다 [1]. 만성 VTE는우연히발견이되거나중심정맥혹은사 지의혈전증에서이차적인만성정맥폐쇄혹은혈전후증후군 (post-thrombotic syndrome, PTS) 의징후와증상으로나타나는데사지의통증, 부종, 표재성측부정맥 (collateral vein) 의확장, 정맥혈정체로인한피부이나궤양등이다 [42]. 1) 사지의 DVT 소아에서급성 DVT는사지의통증, 부종과변색으로나타난다 [12]. 최근해당부위에중심정맥카테터를설치한병력이있으면혈전증가능성이높다 [10,20]. 중심정맥카테터와관련된혈전증은감지하기힘들고만성적인경우가많은데반복적인카테터의폐색이나패혈증이발생할수있고흉부, 안면과경부정맥의측부혈관 (venous collaterals) 이두드러지게나타난다 [10,12]. 2) PE PE의증상은호흡곤란, 늑막성흉통, 기침, 객혈, 발열등이고병변인광범위한경우저혈압과우심부전이나타난다 [43]. 부검연구의결과 PE가진단되지않은경우가많았는데이것은어린소아에서증상을호소하기어렵고호흡곤란이다른증상에가려질수있기때문인것으로추정된다 [43]. 3) 뇌정맥동혈전증 (cerebral sinovenous thrombosis) 뇌정맥동혈전증은신생아에서는종종경련으로나타나고이후연령의소아는심한두통, 시력장애구토, 경련이나국소증상을호소한다 [44]. 또한시신경유두부종과외전신경마비 (abducens palsy) 가나타난다. 일부환자에서는혈전증의원인이되는부비동염이나유양돌기염이있을수있다 [44]. 4) 신정맥혈전증 (renal vein thrombosis) 신정맥혈전증은신생아에서자발적으로발행하는혈전색전증중가장흔하며혈뇨, 복부종괴와혈소판감소증을보인다. 양측성인경우신부전이나타날수있다 [45]. 당뇨병산모에서출생한영아는위험성이증가하는데그기전은알려져있지않다. 신생아이후연령의소아에서는신증후군이신정맥혈전증의주된위험인자이다 [46]. 5) 간문맥혈전증 (portal vein thrombosis). 간문맥혈전증에서는비비대가특징적으로나타나고혈소판감소증및빈혈이동반된다 [47]. 발병시위장관출혈은간문맥고혈압으로인한식도정맥류의전형적인징후이다 [47]. 4 Vol. 24, No. 1, April 2017

5 VTE in Children 6) 내경정맥혈전증 (internal jugular vein thrombosis) 내경정맥혈전증에서는목의통증이나부종이나타나고혈전정맥염으로인한 Lemiere 증후군에서는특징적으로발열, 입벌림장애 (trismus), 그리고목의외측경삼각 (lateral triangle) 에종괴가만져진다 [1]. 7) 전격자색반신생아에서항트롬빈, C단백그리고 S단백의결핍으로인해작은피부혈관의혈전증에이어피부의출혈이일어면서빠르게진행하는피부자색반이다 [48]. 또한이러한영아들은뇌혈전증, 눈의혈전증, 파종성혈관내응고, 그리고큰혈관의혈전증이나타날수있다. 영아에서이유를알수없는자색반성피부병변이있는경우에는초기치료로신선동결혈장을투여해야한다. 미숙아에는유전적결핍이없는경우에도이러한인자들이측정할수없는낮은수치로떨어질수있기때문에진단이어렵다. 치료로는 C단백과항트롬빈농축액을투여하면효과가있다 [49]. 진단 1) 영상검사 VTE의진단을위해서는 Doppler 초음파, 정맥조영술, 컴퓨터단층촬영과자기공명영상을시행한다 [1]. 정맥조영술은침 습적인검사로통증이있고영아와소아에서시행하기어려우므로비침습적인 Doppler 초음파를소아 DVT를진단하기위해가장많이시행하고특히하지의 DVT에서그러하다 [4,5]. 컴퓨터단층촬영과자기공명영상정맥조영술은비침습인방법으로특히근위부의혈전을평가하는데유용하다 [4,5]. DVT 가강하게의심이되지만 Doppler 초음파가음성인경우에는컴퓨터단층촬영이나자기공명영상검사로확인을해야한다. 뇌정맥동혈전증을진단하기위해서는뇌자기공명영상정맥조영술이나확산강조영상이유용하다 [4,5]. PE는흉부의나선형단층촬영, 환기관류스캔, 그리고심초음파로진단한다 [43]. 2) 혈액검사 VTE가있는모든소아에서일반혈액검사와함께혈액응고상태를확인하기위한프로트롬빈시간 (prothrombin time, PT) 과 aptt를측정한다 [4,5]. 성인에서 DVT가의심되는경우 D- 이합체수치가음성예측도가높은것으로알려졌다 [50]. D-이합체는피브린이플라스민에의해분해될때생성되는조각이고섬유소용해를측정할수있다. 임상적인상황에따라신기능혹은간기능같은다른검사를시행할수있다. APS에대한검사는루푸스항응고인자와함께항카디오리핀항체 (anticardiolipin antibody) 와항 2-당단백항체 (anti- 2-glycoprotein antibody) 를포함한다 [28]. Table 2는소아 VTE에서혈전성향증검사항목과위험인자로알려진표지자를요약하였다. C단백, S단백, 그리고항트 Table 2. Common inherited thrombophilias [41] Thrombophilia Prevalence in white population (%) Odds ratio for first episode VTE in childhood Laboratory studies Factor V Leiden mutation Heterozygote Homozygote Prothrombin G20210A mutation Heterozygote Homozygote DNA-based PCR assay (or screen with activated protein C resistance) DNA-based PCR assay Antithrombin deficiency Antithrombin activity via chromogenic or clotting assay Protein S deficiency Protein S activity via assay or immunologic assay of free and total protein S antigen Protein C deficiency Protein C activity via chromogenic or clotting assay Hyperhomocystinemia - - Fasting homocysteine Elevated VIII - - Factor VIII activity via one-stage clotting or chromogenic assay PCR, polymerase chain reaction; VTE, venous thromboembolism. Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 5

6 Hyoung Soo Choi 롬빈등항응고인자의결핍과 VIII 인자와같은응혈촉진성인자의증가, 항인지질항체, 지질단백질, 그리고호모시스테인등과응고나혈관손상의매개물질혹은응고활성화의표지자인 D-이합체에대한검사를포함한다 [1,4,50]. 3) 유전적혈전성향증에대한검사앞서설명한바와같이유전성혈전성향증에대한검사로 Leiden V 인자, 프로트롬빈 G20210A 돌연변이, 그리고 C단백및 S단백, 항트롬빈등의검사를어떤환자에서시행해야하는지는논란이있다 [39]. 유전성혈전성향증에대한검사는급성기치료에는거의영향을미치지않지만치료기간에영향을줄수있는데특히여러가지결핍이있을때그러하다 [40]. 또한재발위험성에대해상담할때도움이된다 [39]. 검사결과를해석할때는혈액응고계의발달과정에서영아와성인간에정상범위가유의한차이가있기때문에주의가필요하다 [17]. 건강한소아에서혈전증이나혈전성향증가족력이있는경우혈전성향증검사를시행하는것은잠재적인장점과제한점을고려하여신중하게결정해야한다 [4]. 치료소아 VTE의치료방법은항응고제, 혈전용해술, 수술그리고관찰등을포함한다. 출혈위험성이높은미숙아와위독한소아환자에서는치료의잠재적인이득과위험을저울질해야한다 [12]. 소아연령에서 VTE의치료는소아에서소규모연구와성인환자의자료에근거한지침에따르고있다 [11,30]. 항응고제를장기간사용하는경우신체적으로활동적인연령에서출혈위험성을고려해서판단해야한다 [5]. 항응고제치료는과응고상태를개선하고혈전의진행과색전증의위험을감소시키며시간이지나면서내인성섬유소용해기전을통해혈전을소실시킨다 [1]. 통상적인항응고제로소아에서가장많이사용하는것은헤파린 (heparin) 과와파린 (warfarin) 이다 [1,12] (Table 3). 헤파린은비분할형헤파린 (unfractionated heparin) 과저분자량헤파린 (low molecular weight heparin, LMWH) 이있는데두가지약제모두항트롬빈 III와결합하여트롬빈에대한억제작용을촉진시킨다 [29]. VTE의급성기치료에서헤파린화기간은성인에서는 5-10일이다 [30]. 아급성기에서항응고제치료는 LMWH 혹은와파린을사용한다 [1,30]. 소아 VTE에서항응고제치료의지침은신생아에서는 6주-3개월간치료를하고, 이후의연령에서는 3-6 개월치료를하는것이다 [29,30]. 원인을알수없는경우에는 6-12개월간치료를하고유전성혈전소인이강한경우이거나혈전증이재발하는경우, 그리고 APS에서는지속적으로항응고제치료가필요하다 [29,30]. 1) 헤파린 ( 비분할형, 표준형 ) 헤파린은 5,000-25,000 Da로분자량이큰다당류로항트롬빈 III와반응을하여 Xa 인자와트롬빈, 그리고다른세린단백분해효소를억제한다. 반면에, LMWH는더작은크기의다당류로항트롬빈 III와상호작용을통해주로 Xa를억제하고트롬빈에대한영향은적다. 헤파린을투여할때는 aptt로감시검사를하고 LMWH를사용하는경우에는 anti-xa 활성도를측정한다 [29,30]. 헤파린을투여할때는 aptt가정상치상한의 배로연장이되도록한다. 한번에 units/kg을투여하면대부분소아에서치료범위에도달하게되고이어서지속적주입을 Table 3. Comparison of antithrombotic agents [12] rtpa Unfractionated heparin Low molecular weight heparin (Enoxaparin) Warfarin Indication Administration Monitoring Other Recent onset of lifeor limb-threatening thrombus IV, Continuous infusion Lytic state : FDP or D-dimer Higher risk of bleeding Acute or chronic thrombus, prophylaxis Acute or chronic thrombus, prophylaxis IV, Continuous infusion SC injection, twice daily PO, once daily PTT Anti-Xa activity INR Difficult to titrate, requires Frequent dose adjustments More stable and easy to titrate; concern of osteopenia with long-term use Subacute or chronic thrombosis, thromboprophylaxis for cardiac valves Heavily influenced by drug and diet FDP, fibrin degradation product; INR, international normalized ratio; LMW, low-molecular-weight; PTT, partial thromboplastin time; rtpa, recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator. 6 Vol. 24, No. 1, April 2017

7 VTE in Children 시행한다. 처음용량은연령에따라결정하는데영아에서가장높은양이필요하다. 루푸스항응고인자가존재하거나, VIII 인자가증가한경우, 혹은신생아에서는 aptt가항응고의정도를정확하게반영하지못할수있어서 anti-xa 농도를 units/ml 정도로유지하도록한다. 어린소아에서 aptt를치료범위로유지하는것이어려운이유는헤파린의생체이용률이예측하기어렵고혈장단백의영향을받기때문이다. 따라서자주정맥채혈을해서여러번용량을조절해야한다. 헤파린은지속적인정맥주사가필요하므로어린소아에서는투약이어려울수있다 [29,30]. 헤파린치료의가장흔한부작용은출혈로소아환자에서 1-24% 정도로보고되었다. 헤파린의항응고효과를즉시중단시켜야하는경우에는프로타민황산염 (protamine sulfate) 을투여하여헤파린을중화시킨다. 헤파린의다른부작용은골다공증과헤파린에의한저혈소판증 (heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, HIT) 이다 [51]. HIT는면역기전에의한합병증으로헤파린과혈소판인자 4의결합체에항체가형성되는것이다. 이러한항체는혈소판활성화와혈액응고의자극, 그리고혈소판감소증을유발하며, 일부에서는생명을위협하는혈전증을발생시킨다. 헤파린에의한저혈소판증이강력하게의심이되면헤파린을즉시중단하고다른정맥주사용항응고제 argatroban, lepirudin, 혹은 bivalirudin 등으로교체하는것을권장한다 [29,30]. 2) LMWH LMWH는용량결정이쉽고감시검사가덜필요하므로소아에서점차더많이이용되고있다 [29,30]. 소아에서가장많이이용하는 LMWH는 enoxaparin이다. Enoxaparin은 2개월미만영아에서 1.5 mg/kg을 12시간간격으로피하주사하고 2개월이후에는 1 mg/kg을같은일정으로투여하는데최대농도에도달하는것은투여후 2-6시간이다. Anti Xa는 2차혹은 3차투여후 4시간에검사하여혈중농도가 IU/mL 가되도록용량을조절한다 [29,30]. Enoxaparin의반감기는 4-6시간이고신장을통해제거되므로신기능이저하된경우주의가필요하고신부전이있는환자에서는금기이다. 헤파린이나 LMWH으로초기항응고제치료를하고나면외래에서 LMWH이나와파린을투여할수있다. 소아연령에서 LMWH 를선호하는이유는피하주사가가능하고 HIT의위험이낮으며감시검사가덜필요하기때문이다. 하지만출혈위험성이증가되어있고신기능이저하된환자에서는 LMWH 보다반감기가짧은비분할형헤파린을선호한다. 척수천자와같은침습적시술을할때는 LMWH를시술 24시간전에중단한다 [29]. 3) 와파린 (warfarin) 와파린은경구용항응고제로서비타민 K 의존혈액응고인자 II, VII, IX, 그리고 X, 또한 C단백과 S단백의농도를감소시킨다 [29,30]. 와파린투여는헤파린이나 LMWH으로항응고치료를하는기간동안시작해야하는데그렇지않은경우내인성항응고인자인 C단백이응혈원인자 (procoagulant) 보다빠르게감소하게되어와파린유발성피부괴사가나타날수있기때문이다 [12,29]. 와파린을시작할때는 0.1 mg/kg의용량을하루 1회경구로투여한다. PT로와파린의항응고효과를감시하는데 PT 시약의민감도차이때문에실험실간의비교가어려운점을해결하기위해국제표준화비율 (international normalized ratio, INR) 을이용하고있다. INR이 2일동안치료수준에도달할때까지헤파린이나 LMWH를계속투여하는데보통 5-7일정도가걸린다. VTE의치료에서 INR의목표수치는일반적으로 사이이고인공심장판막이나 APS, 또는반복적인혈전증등고위험군에서는더높은수치가필요하다 [30]. INR 은와파린치료를처음시작하거나용량을변경하고 5일후측정을하고이후안정이될때까지 1주간격으로검사한다. 안정화가되면점차적으로검사간격을늘리는것이가능하다. 출혈증상이있거나멍이늘어나는경우 INR을측정해야한다. 와파린은침습적검사를하기 5일전중단하고시술전 INR을측정한다. 이때항응고요법을 LMWH로변경할수있다 [29]. 와파린투여의부작용은다른항응고제와마찬가지로출혈이가장흔한데소아에서심각한출혈의위험은 1.7% 로보고되었다. INR이치료범위를넘어선경우는출혈위험이더높다. 식사, 약물, 그리고질환이와파린대사에영향을미칠수있어서빈번하게용량조절과 PT 검사가필요하다. 와파린의효과를차단하기위한방법은임상적상황과출혈여부에따라달라진다. 비타민 K는효과가나타나기까지시간이걸리므로유의한출혈이있을때는비타민 K와함께신선동결혈장을 15 ml/kg 용량으로투여한다. 와파린은임신초기에기형을유발할수있는데와파린과관련된태아장애는뼈와연골의이상이특징적인 chondrodysplasia punctate로코의형성저하증과골단및척추의과잉석회화를보인다 [12]. 4) 직접트롬빈억제제와 Xa 억제제직접트롬빈억제제 (dabigatran) 혹은 Xa 억제제 (apixaban, rivaroxaban) 와같은새로운경구약제는수술, 부동자세, 심방세동과같이혈전위험성이증가한성인에서 VTE의예방이나치료에사용한다. 고정된용량으로경구투여할수있고비타 Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 7

8 Hyoung Soo Choi 민 K와음식물상호작용이없는점, 감시검사가필요하지않은점, 그리고와파린과비교연구에서비열등성과출혈증상이적은점등이이런약제를선호하는이유이다. 소아에서는이약제들의사용에대한근거가부족한상황이다 [52]. 5) 혈전용해제및혈전제거수술항응고치료단독으로혈전증을치료하는데효과가있는경우가많지만보다신속한혈전용해가필요할때는섬유소용해를활성화하는 recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtpa) 와같은혈전용해제가유용하다 [12,29]. 혈전용해치료는출혈위험성이높기때문에보통생명이나사지보존을위협하는출혈에만사용한다. 혈전제거수술은생명이나사지를위협하는혈전증에서혈전용해술사용이금기일때시도할수있다 [12,29]. 6) 카테터와관련된 VTE에서카테터제거중심정맥카테터가소아 VTE의가장중요한위험인자이므로항응고제치료를시작하고 2-4일후카테터를제거한다. 만약정맥주사가어려워카테터를제거하지못하는경우에는영상검사를시행하여혈전증이증가하는지확인해야한다 [4]. 7) 예방적항응고요법 (thromboprophylaxis) 소아에서 VTE를예방하기위한임상시험은없지만입원한청소년에서혈전증의위험인자가여러가지있고장기간부동자세를유지하는경우 enoxaparin 0.5 mg/kg ( 최대 30 mg) 를 12시간간격으로투여하는예방적치료가도움이될수있다 [29]. 8) 항혈소판치료아스피린과같은약제를이용한혈소판기능의억제는 VTE 보다동맥혈전증에서효과가있다. 아스피린은아세틸살리실산인데씨클로옥시게나제를비가역적으로억제하여혈소판의 thromboxane A2 생성을차단함으로써항혈소판작용을발휘한다. 아스피린은가와사키병에서일상적으로투여하고뇌졸중, 심실에기구가설치된경우, 그리고단심실심결손환자에서유용하다. 항혈소판작용을위해추천되는소아용량은하루에 1-5 mg/kg이다 [30]. 합병증및예후소아 VTE와관련하여급성으로혹은장시간에걸쳐합병증이발생할수있다. 단시간에나타나는부작용으로가장중요한것은항혈전증치료나혈전증자체로인한출혈이다 [1]. 그외 DVT나 PE의조기재발, 상지정맥의 DVT로인한상대정맥 증후군 (superior vena cava syndrome), 신정맥혈전증에서급성신부전, 카테터와관련된패혈증및 PE, 카테터기능장애, 사지의폐색성 DVT로인한급성정맥부전및정맥경색, 사지의괴저 (gangrene), 그리고광범위한심장내혈전이나원위부 PE로인한혈역학적불안정에따른사망등이발생한다 [53]. 캐나다등록연구에서 DVT로인한사망률은 2.2% 였다 [9]. 소아 VTE의재발은추적관찰기간에따라 % 로다양한데특발성혈전증인경우에재발율이높았다 [54]. 신생아에서는재발하는경우가약 3% 였다 [34]. 시간이지나면서국소혹은원위부에반복적인혈전증이발생하고 PTS가나타날수있다 [42]. PTS는정맥판막손상과관련된정맥부전으로인한만성합병증으로부종, 만성통증, 종창, 변색, 그리고병변이있는사지의궤양이나타나는것이다 [55]. 성인 DVT의 20-50% 에서 PTS가발생하고소아에서도 10-70% 정도로발생하는데 [56] VTE가발생한후첫 2년에가장빈도가높지만이후에도시간이가면서계속증가한다 [55]. 향후방향및결론소아 VTE는성인과비교하여발생빈도가낮지만점차증가하는추세를보이면서급성및만성후유증을갖는중요한문제로대두되고있다. 소아 VTE의치료지침은성인환자의임상시험자료에근거하고있으나 [20] 두군간에병인이다르고선택할수있는치료법에차이가있음을고려해야한다 [51]. 따라서소아 VTE의진단, 혈전성향증의평가, 혈전치료및예방, 그리고추적관찰의지침을개발하기위한전향적다기관연구가필요하다. 또한직접트롬빈억제제와 Xa 억제제와같이성인에서새로승인된약제들에대해소아연령에서도임상연구를시행하여향후소아 VTE에서항응고제선택의폭을넓혀야한다 [14,51]. 이러한노력을통해소아 VTE에서위험군에따라적절한항혈전치료를시행하고장기적인예후를호전시킬수있을것이다. 감사의글 This study was supported by a grant from the Seoul National University Bundang Hospital (SNUBH) Research Fund (Grant number: ). References 1. Goldenberg NA, Bernard TJ. Venous thromboembolism in 8 Vol. 24, No. 1, April 2017

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