Endocrinol Metab. 25(2): , June 2010 DOI: /EnM ORIGINAL ARTICLE 전갑상선절제술환자에서갑상선호르몬보충시 T4 에서 T3 로의말초변환에영향을미치는인자 김의영 김원구 김태용 윤

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1 Endocrinol Metab. 25(2): , June 2010 ORIGINAL ARTICLE 전갑상선절제술환자에서갑상선호르몬보충시 T4 에서 T3 로의말초변환에영향을미치는인자 김의영 김원구 김태용 윤종호 1 홍석준 1 송영기 김원배 울산의대서울아산병원내분비내과, 외과 1 Factors Influencing Peripheral Conversion of Thyroxine to Tri-Iodothyronine in Athyreotic Individuals during Levothyroxine Replacement Eui Young Kim, Won Gu Kim, Tae Yong Kim, Jong Ho Yoon 1, Suck Joon Hong 1, Young Kee Shong, Won Bae Kim Departments of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Surgery 1, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea Background: Tri-iodothyronine (T3) is the main active hormone, and 20% of this is derived from the thyroid gland and 80% is from the peripheral tissue according to 5 -monodeiodination of thyroxine (T4). In the previous studies, normal T3 levels were achieved with traditional levothyroxine (LT4) therapy alone in athyreotic patients, but there has been no data about the factors influencing peripheral conversion of LT4. The aim of this study was to determine the factor(s) influencing peripheral conversion of LT4 to T3 in athyreotic patients during LT4 replacement. Methods: The patients who underwent total-thyroidectomy for any cause, and mostly for thyroid cancers, at Asan Medical Center between 2000 and 2008 were enrolled. The free T4, T3 and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels and age, gender, weight, height, body mass index (BMI) and the T4 dose were measured. Only patients with normal ranges of free T4 and TSH were included in the analysis. Results: A total of 143 patients were enrolled. The mean T3, free T4 and TSH levels were ng/dl, 1.4 ng/dl and 1.6 µu/ml, respectively. The mean weight and BMI were 62.9 kg and 24.6 kg/m 2, respectively. We divided them into two groups according to the serum T3 level and we compared the characteristics of the groups. There were no differences in age, the gender distribution, the T4 dose/weight and the BMI between the low T3 group (T3 122 ng/dl, n = 14) and the normal T3 group (T3 > 122 ng/dl, n = 129). In the low T3 group, the mean body weight was significantly lower than that of the normal T3 group (59.0 ± 6.0 vs ± 9.9, respectively, P = 0.025). Conclusion: Lean body mass seems to be an important factor for determining the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 in human. This suggest that a combination of T3/T4 is better than T4 only when we treat the patients with hypothyroidism and who have a negligible amount of functioning thyroid tissue, if they have a low lean body mass. (Endocrinol Metab 25: , 2010) Key Words: Levothyroxine, Tri-iodithyronine, Monodeiodinase 서론 말초조직에서갑상선호르몬의생물학적활성도는삼요오드티로닌 (Tri-iodothyronine, T3) 이티록신 (Thyroxine, T4) 보다 3-4배정도강하며주로 T3가조직에존재하는핵내갑상선호르몬수용체와 Received: 29 October 2009, Accepted: 6 February 2010 Corresponding author: Won Bae Kim Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Asan Medical Center, Pungnap 2-dong, Songpa-gu, Seoul , Korea Tel: , Fax: , kimwb@amc.seoul.kr 결합하여갑상선호르몬의생물학적작용을나타낸다. 혈청 T3의 20% 는갑상선에서생성된것이며 80% 는말초조직에서 T4가탈요오드화에의해 T3로전환된것이다. 갑상선기능저하증환자치료시 T4만투여하여도말초조직에서 T4가 T3로전환되므로일반적으로 T4만투여하여도무방한것으로알려져있다. 따라서현재갑상선기능저하증환자에서갑상선호르몬보충요법으로레보티록신 (Levothyroxine, LT4) 을표준치료제로사용하고있으며생체내에서 LT4 에서 T3로의말초변환및이의조절은이전연구들에서증명되었다 [1-3]. 그러나, 이론적으로갑상선조직이수술이나질환등으로감소

2 120 Kim EY, et al. 한경우말초 T3 생성의일부를담당하는기관인갑상선조직이감소한만큼 T3의부족이예측된다. 이런경우 T4만투여하여도 T3 필요량을적절히보충하는데충분한지에관하여는아직알려져있지않다. 또한, 실험동물에서갑상선기능저하증시 T4 단독투여보다는 T4/T3 복합투여가말초조직에서정상갑상선호르몬농도를유지하는데있어서더좋다는연구들도있다 [4-7]. 갑상선호르몬보충요법시갑상선호르몬의부족또는과잉은다양한조직에부작용을유발하기때문에 [8-11] 적절한 LT4 용량을결정하기위해서는주의깊은관찰이요구된다 [12]. 대부분의환자에서임상적관찰과갑상선자극호르몬 (thyroid stimulating hormone, TSH) 측정을통해정확한 LT4 용량을정할수있다 [13]. 그러나환자의성별, 연령, 체격에따라개개인에필요한 LT4 용량에차이가있다고보고되고있다 [14-20]. 각각의환자에게필요한갑상선호르몬용량을정하는데적정체중을고려해야하며제지방체중 (lean body mass) 이노인에서필요한갑상선호르몬용량의예측인자로보고하였다 [21]. 그외남아있는갑상선존재여부, 동반된비갑상선질환, 약물사용여부, 임신등의특별한생리적상태등에따라서도 LT4 용량의조절이필요하다 [15,19,21,22]. 동물모델에서혈청 T3가늙은수컷쥐에서감소되어있고이것은수컷쥐에서간에서 T4에서 T3로의탈요오드화가암컷에비해적기때문으로보고되었다 [23]. 하지만, 인간에서 T4의 T3로의말초변환에영향을주는인자에대해잘계획된연구가없다. 이를위하여는갑상선조직이완전히제거된상태에서 T4 투여시 T3 농도에관한연구가필요하며, 이때 T4에서 T3로의말초전환에결정적인역할을하게되는 autoregulation (T4가부족하면전환율이증가하고과잉이면전환율이감소하는 ) 의영향이배제되어야한다 [24]. 이에본연구에서는 T3가갑상선에서생성되지않는전갑상선절제술을시행한환자를대상으로 autoregulation 의영향을최소화한상태에서 T4의 T3로의말초변환에미치는임상적인인자들에대해조사하였다. 2. 혈청검사갑상선자극호르몬은방사면역계수측정법 (Radioimmunometric assay; SPAC-S TSH kit, Daiichi, Tokyo, Japan) 으로측정하였으며정상범위는 µu/ml이며 intraassay of coefficient variation (CV) 은 2.1%, interassay of CV는 2.5% 이다. 혈청유리 T4는방사면역측정법 (Radioimmunoassay; Immunotech kit, A Beckman Coulter Company, Prague) 으로측정하였으며정상범위는 ng/dl이며 intraassay of CV는 8.3%, interassay of CV는 7.5% 이다. 혈청총 T3는방사면역측정법 (Radioimmunoassay; DiaSorin S.p.A, Saluggia, Italy) 으로측정하였으며정상범위는 ng/dl이며 intraassay of CV는 3.0%, interassay of CV는 5.0% 이다. 채혈시점은 LT4 를복용하지않은상태에서공복에채혈하였다. 3. 통계분석통계학적검증으로 SPSS 17.0 프로그램을이용하였으며두군간의비교는독립표본 t 검정을이용하여분석하였다. 혈청 T3 농도에유의한인자들은비교하기위해다중회귀분석을시행하였다. P- value가 0.05 미만인경우를통계적으로유의수준으로정의하였다. 결과 1. 대상환자의임상적특성본연구에포함된총 771명의혈청유리 T4 농도에따른혈청총 T3/ 유리 T4 비는혈중유리 T4 농도가낮은경우총 T3/ 유리 T4 값이컸으며혈중유리 T4 농도가높은경우 T3/ 유리 T4 값이적었다 (Fig. 1). 즉, T4에서 T3로의말초변환의 autoregulation 작용에따라유리 T4가낮거나높은경우전환율이변함을알수있었고, 이러한영향 대상및방법 1. 대상본연구는 2000년에서 2008년까지서울아산병원에서전갑상선절제술을시행후 LT4 를복용중인환자로적어도현재의 LT4 용량으로 2개월이상복용후총 T3를측정한환자를대상으로하였으며임신중인환자, T4에서 T3로의전환에영향을미치는약물을복용중인환자, 중증간질환및신장질환을가진환자등은제외하였다. 상기조건을충족하는환자는총 771명이었으며, autoregulation 의영향을최소화하기위하여갑상선자극호르몬, 유리 T4가모두정상범위에있는 143명을선별하였다. 이들환자를대상으로총 T3, 유리 T4, 갑상선자극호르몬, 나이, 성별, 체중, 키, 체질량지수를조사하였다. T3/free T Free T4 (ng/dl) Fig. 1. Tri-iodothyronine and free thyroxine ratio (T3/fT4) according to the level of free T4 (n = 771). T3, tri-iodothyronine; T4, thyroxine.

3 Factors Influencing Peripheral Conversion of T4 to T3 in Athyreotic Individuals during LT4 replacement 121 을배제하기위하여갑상선자극호르몬과혈청유리 T4가정상범위안에있는환자 143명 ( 남성 27명, 여성 116명 ) 만을대상에포함시켰다. 대상환자들의평균연령은 49.4 ± 13세였다. 혈청총 T3의평균값은 ± 21 ng/dl, 유리 T4의평균값은 1.4 ± 0.2 ng/dl, 갑상선자극호르몬의평균값은 1.6 ± 1.1 µu/ml 였다. 대상환자의평균 T4 용량은 ± 41 µg/day, 평균체중은 62.9 ± 9.7 kg, 평균신장은 ± 7.4 cm, 평균체질량지수는 24.6 ± 3 kg/m 2 였다 (Table 1) ) (Fig. 2) 체질량지수에는차이가없었다 (23.4 ± 2.3 vs ± 3.0, P = 0.07) (Fig. 2). 혈청총 T3 농도에대한다중회귀분석에서체중이유의한인자였으며 (β = 1.99, P = 0.029), 체질량지수 (β = 1.452, P = 0.206) 와신장 (β = , P = 0.766) 은유의한인자가아니었다 (after adjustment for age, gender, dose/weight). 고찰 2. 혈청총 T3 농도에따른임상적특성본연구에서는혈청총 T3 농도를평균값의 -1 표준편차인 122 ng/dl 를기준으로두군으로나누어임상적특성을비교하였다 (Table 2). 두군간에나이, 성별, 신장은통계적으로유의한차이가없었다. 또한두군간에혈청유리 T4 농도와갑상선자극호르몬농도, 투여중인 T4 용량에도차이가없었다. 혈청총 T3가낮은 (122 ng/dl 이하인 ) 군에서혈청총 T3가낮지않은 (122 ng/dl 초과인 ) 군에비하여유의하게체중이적었으며 (59.0 ± 6.0 vs ± 9.9, P = 본연구는우리나라에서전갑상선절제술을시행한환자를대상으로 LT4 보충요법시 LT4 의 T3로의말초변화에영향을미치는인자에대해조사한첫번째연구로혈청총 T3가낮은군과높은군간에나이, 성별, 신장은차이가없었으며혈청총 T3가낮은군에서체중이적었으나체질량지수는차이가없었다. 또한나이, 성별, 체중당투약량을보정후시행한혈청총 T3 농도에대한다중회귀분석에서체중이유의한인자였으며체질량지수와신장은유의하지않았다. Table 1. Baseline characteristics of study population (n = 143) Variable Mean ± SD Age (years) 49.4 ± 13 Gender (M/F) 27/116 T3 (ng/dl) ± 21 Free T4 (ng/dl) 1.4 ± 0.2 TSH (mu/ml) 1.6 ± 1.1 T4 dose (µg/day) ± 41 Weight (kg) 62.9 ± 9.7 Height (cm) ± 7.4 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 24.6 ± 3 T3, tri-iodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; BMI, body mass index; SD, standard deviation. Table 2. Comparison of clinical parameters according to tri-iodothyronine level Variables T3 122 ng/dl (n = 14) T3 > 122 ng/dl (n = 129) P-value Age (years) 49.5 ± ± Gender (M/F) 1/13 26/ Height (cm) ± ± Weight (kg) 59.0 ± ± BMI (kg/m 2 ) 23.4 ± ± Free T4 (ng/dl) 1.3 ± ± TSH (mu/ml) 2.1 ± ± T4 dose (µg/day) ± ± T4 dose/weight 2.7 ± ± T3, tri-iodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; BMI, body mass index P = P = BMI (kg/m 2 ) 20 Weight (kg) T3 122 T3 > 122 T3 122 T3 > 122 T3 (ng/dl) A T3 (ng/dl) Fig. 2. Body mass index (BMI) (A) and body weight (B) according to the level of tri-iodothyronine. T3, tri-iodothyronine. B

4 122 Kim EY, et al. 갑상선호르몬의대사는주로탈요오드화에의해대사되며그밖에유황화 (sulfation), 글루쿠론산화 (glucuronojugation), 산화적탈아미노반응 (oxidative domination) 등에의해서도대사된다. T4는 80% 정도가갑상선, 간, 신장, 뇌하수체, 근육등말초조직에서요오드가한분자씩떨어지는탈요오드화를거쳐서주로대사되며이는총 T3 생산량의약 80% 를차지한다 [25]. 혈청 T3의대부분이 T4로부터전환된것이라는증거는갑상선조직이없는환자에게 T4를투여하면혈청 T3가정상으로유지되는점으로뒷받침된다 [1]. 본연구는투여한 LT4 의 T3로의말초변환에영향을미치는인자에대해알아보기위해잔존갑상선기능이남아있는갑상선기능저하증환자를포함하지않고전갑상선절제술을시행한환자를대상으로하였으며이는대부분의환자가갑상선암으로갑상선호르몬에대한순응도가좋으며규칙적인경과관찰을통해갑상선호르몬및갑상선자극호르몬수치측정이되어있는장점이있으며저갑상선호르몬혈증또는고갑상선호르몬혈증시 T4에서 T3로의전환율이변할수있기때문에대상환자중갑상선호르몬과갑상선자극호르몬수치가정상범위를벗어나는환자를제외하여조사하였다. LT4 는공복에투여하면상부소장에서약 80% 가흡수되며흡수 2-4시간후에혈청 T4 농도가최고치에달하고 6시간후에기저치에도달한다. 혈장반감기는 7일이므로 T4 투여후새로운평형상태에도달하는데적어도 5-6 주가걸린다. 따라서 T4 치료후또는 T4 용량조절후갑상선기능의평가는적어도 6주이후에해야한다. 따라서본연구는적어도현재의 T4 용량으로 8주이상복용후혈청총 T3를측정한환자들을대상으로하였다. 또한정확한 T4 복용과 LT4 를복용하지않은상태에서공복에채혈하여 Figure 1의결과해석시 LT4 복용시점과채혈시점에따라쉽게변하는유리 T4 농도의영향을배제할수있었으며이는즉 T4에서 T3로의말초변환의 autoregulation 작용에따라유리 T4가낮거나높은경우전환율이변함을알수있었다. 따라서본연구에서는 autoregulation 의영향을배제하기위해갑상선자극호르몬과혈청유리 T4 농도가정상인환자들만을대상으로하였다. 성인갑상선기능저하증의보충요법에서 LT4 평균치료용량은 1.6 µg/kg/day 정도이다. 그러나갑상선호르몬보충요법은각환자마다다르게적용해야하는데혈청갑상선자극호르몬농도에따라용량을결정하는방법도있지만환자의연령, 증상의정도, 전신상태등여러인자들을종합적으로고려해서결정된다. 본논문에서전갑상선절제술을시행한환자에서 LT4 보충요법시말초변화에영향을미치는인자로나이나성별은차이가없었고 T3가 -1 표준편차보다낮은군에서체중이유의하게적었으나체질량지수는차이가없었으며다중회귀분석결과혈청 T3 농도에유의한인자는체중으로이는혈청 T3가낮은환자에서제지방체중이적기때문으로생각된다. 이전연구에서갑상선기능저하증환자에서 LT4 보충요법시노인에서 LT4 요구량이감소함을보고하였고 [21] Rosenbaum 등 [16] 은제지방체중이연령이나체중보다 T4 요구량의더좋은예측인자이며 연령이증가하면서제지방체중이감소하는것이 T4 대사율을감소시켜 T4 요구량이감소하는것으로보고하였다. 또한 Santini 등 [26] 은갑상선조직이없는환자에서 LT4 투여시체질량지수가높을수록즉지방축적이많은환자에서마른환자와같은갑상선자극호르몬감소를이루기위해더많은용량의 LT4 가필요함을보여주었으나신체구성요소를살펴보았을때제지방체중이 LT4 요구량의주요결정인자였으나지방량은영향을주는인자가아니었다고보고하였다. 이것은 T4의대사가주로제지방부위에서일어난다는것을말하는것이며제지방체중은다른종류의약용량의예측인자로도보고되고있다 [27]. 이전연구들은 T4 요구량과제지방체중에대한관련을살펴보았으나 T3 말초변환과의관련을본연구는없었다. 본연구의결과로는제지방체중이혈청 T4에서 T3로의말초변환에중요한것으로보이는데이에대한기전을살펴보면다음과같다. 갑상선호르몬대사과정에서탈요오드화를촉매하는효소로는제1 형 5 - 탈요오드효소, 제2형 5 - 탈요오드효소및제3형 5 - 탈요오드효소등세종류가있으며간과신장에있는제1형 5 - 탈요오드효소가혈청 T3 생산에주로기여하고, 제2형 5 - 탈요오드효소는뇌와같은조직에서조직내의 T3 생산에주로기여한다는기존의개념이최근제2형 5 - 탈요오드효소가갑상선과골격근에서도발현되는점이밝혀져변하고있다. 골격근에존재하는제2형 5 - 탈요오드효소는단순히국소적인 T3 생산에기여하는이외에도혈청 T3 농도에도기여한다 [28]. 따라서혈청 T3는간과신장에서제1형 5 - 탈요오드효소에의해 T4로부터전환된부분과골격근에서제2형 5 - 탈요오드효소에의해 T4로부터생산된부분의두가지로구성되는데갑상선기능저하증에서는제2형 5 - 탈요오드효소가중요하며본연구의결과에서와같이갑상선조직이없는환자에서 LT4 투여시혈청 T3로의대사과정에골격근의양이중요하며이는골격근의제2형 5 - 탈요오드효소의작용과관련있을것으로생각할수있다. 고전적으로말초조직에서 T4의 T3로의전환에는간의탈요오드효소가양적으로가장중요할것으로여겨져왔는데, 그근거는간조직에서제1형 5 - 탈요오드효소활성이높게발현이되고간의조직량이상당히크다는사실때문이다 [29]. 그러나, 최근 Streckfuss 등 [30] 은형질전환마우스를통해간의제1형 5 - 탈요오드효소발현을완전히억제시켜도혈청 T3 농도가정상적으로유지됨을밝혀간조직이말초 T3 생산의중요한장소일것이라는기존의개념이틀릴가능성을제시한바있다. Jonklaas 등 [31] 은최근전향적인연구를통하여갑상선전절제술전의갑상선기능과수술후 T4 단독복용상태에서의갑상선기능지표를비교한연구에서 T4만복용하더라도 T3 치는수술전과차이가없음을밝힌바있어, 갑상선조직이전혀없는경우에일반적으로 T4만복용하더라도말초 T3 양을유지하는데에는문제가되지않는다고하였다. 하지만그연구는 50명이라는소규모의연구였기때문에일부환자에서 T4 단독복용만으로 T3 농도가정상적으

5 Factors Influencing Peripheral Conversion of T4 to T3 in Athyreotic Individuals during LT4 replacement 123 로유지되지못할가능성은배제할수없다. 본연구의제한점으로는신체구성요소를측정하는방법으로체중과신장, 체질량지수를측정하였으나이중에너지 X선흡수계측법등을통해제지방체중과지방량등을측정하지않아직접적인비교를하지못한점이다. 이는추후추가적인연구가필요한부분이다. 또한, 본연구에서는총 T3 농도를측정하였는데총 T3는혈청갑상선호르몬결합단백의양과갑상선호르몬결합단백의결합양상에의해측정치가영향을받기때문에갑상선호르몬결합단백에양적혹은질적변화가있으면총 T3 변화가초래되므로유리 T3 측정이총호르몬을측정하는것보다생물학적효과를더잘반영할수있을것이나본연구에서는유리 T3 측정을하지못하였다. 결론적으로, 전갑상선절제술을시행한환자에서 LT4 보충요법시체중이낮은환자에서는 T4의 T3로의말초전환이감소되어있음을알수있었고, 이들환자에서체질량지수는낮지않아갑상선호르몬의말초전환에는제지방체중이중요한역할을할것으로생각된다. 이는제지방체중이낮고제기능을하는갑상선조직이거의없는갑상선기능저하증환자에서는갑상선호르몬대치요법시소량의 T3 를추가하는것이 T4 단독투여보다유용할수있음을시사하는소견이다. 요약배경 : 혈청 T3의 20% 는갑상선에서생성되고 80% 는말초조직에서 T4가탈요오드화에의해 T3로변환된다. 갑상선조직이없는환자에서 LT4 보충요법시 LT4 가 T3로전환되어정상혈중총 T3 농도가보고되고있으나이에대한영향을미치는인자에대한연구는없는상태이다. 따라서본연구는갑상선절제술을시행한환자를대상으로 LT4 단독투여시혈청 T3 농도에영향을미치는인자에대해알아보고자하였다. 방법 : 2000년부터 2008년까지서울아산병원에서전갑상선절제술을시행받고 LT4 를복용중인환자를대상으로혈청총 T3, 유리 T4, 갑상선자극호르몬, 나이, 성별, 체중, 신장, T4 용량에대해조사하였다. 혈청총 T3/ 유리 T4 비율은혈청유리 T4가낮은경우현저하게증가하였고, 높은경우현저하게감소하여 T4의 T3로의전환에 autoregulation 이작용함을알수있었고, autoregulation 이혈청총 T3 에미치는영향을최소화하기위해혈청유리 T4 치가정상인환자들만을분석에포함시켰다. 결과 : 총 143명 ( 남성 27명, 여성 116명 ) 이포함되었고평균연령은 49.4 세, 혈청총 T3의평균값은 ng/dl, 유리 T4의평균값은 1.4 ng/dl, 갑상선자극호르몬의평균값은 1.6 µu/ml 였다. 대상환자의평균 T4 용량은 µg/day, 평균체중은 62.9 kg, 평균신장은 cm, 평균체질량지수는 24.6 kg/m 2 였다. 혈청 T3가낮은환자들 (T3 122 ng/dl, n = 14) 과정상인환자들 (T3 > 122 ng/dl, n = 129) 로나누어서임상적특성을비교하였다. 두그룹간투여중인 T4 의용량, 단위체중당 T4 용량, 유리 T4 농도, 갑상선자극호르몬농 도, 성별, 나이, 신장, 체질량지수 (kg/m 2 ) 등은유의한차이가없었으 나총 T3 농도가낮은그룹에서정상인그룹에비하여유의하게체 중이적었다 (59.0 ± 6.0 vs ± 9.9, P = 0.025). 결론 : 인체에서 T4 의 T3 로의말초변환에는제지방체중이중요한 역할을하는것으로생각된다. 이는제지방체중이낮고갑상선조직 이없거나매우적은갑상선기능저하증환자에서는갑상선호르몬 대치요법시소량의 T3 를추가하는것이 T4 단독투여보다유용할 수있음을시사하는소견이다. 참고문헌 1. Braverman LE, Ingbar SH, Sterling K: Conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) in athyreotic human subjects. J Clin Invest 49: , Braverman LE, Vagenakis A, Downs P, Foster AE, Sterling K, Ingbar SH: Effects of replacement doses of sodium L-thyroxine on the peripheral metabolism of thyroxine and triiodothyronine in man. J Clin Invest 52: , Nicoloff JT, Lum SM, Spencer CA, Morris R: Peripheral autoregulation of thyroxine to triiodothyronine conversion in man. Horm Metab Res Suppl 14:74-79, Escobar-Morreale HF, del Rey FE, Obregón MJ, de Escobar GM: Only the combined treatment with thyroxine and triiodothyronine ensures euthyroidism in all tissues of the thyroidectomized rat. Endocrinology 137: , Escobar-Morreale HF, Obregón MJ, Escobar del Rey F, Morreale de Escobar G: Replacement therapy for hypothyroidism with thyroxine alone does not ensure euthyroidism in all tissues, as studied in thyroidectomized rats. J Clin Invest 96: , Escobar-Morreale HF, Obregón MJ, Escobar del Rey F, Morreale de Escobar G: Tissue-specific patterns of changes in 3,5,3 -triiodo-l-thyronine concentrations in thyroidectomized rats infused with increasing doses of the hormone. Which are the regulatory mechanisms? Biochimie 81: , Escobar-Morreale HF, Obregón MJ, Hernandez A, Escobar del Rey F, Morreale de Escobar G: Regulation of iodothyronine deiodinase activity as studied in thyroidectomized rats infused with thyroxine or triiodothyronine. Endocrinology 138: , Bartalena L, Pinchera A: Effects of thyroxine excess on peripheral organs. Acta Med Austriaca 21:60-65, Fazio S, Palmieri EA, Lombardi G, Biondi B: Effects of thyroid hormone on the cardiovascular system. Recent Prog Horm Res 59:31-50, Sawin CT, Geller A, Wolf PA, Belanger AJ, Baker E, Bacharach P, Wilson PW, Benjamin EJ, D Agostino RB: Low serum thyrotropin concentrations as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation in older persons. N Engl J Med 331: , Uzzan B, Campos J, Cucherat M, Nony P, Boissel JP, Perret GY: Effects on bone mass of long term treatment with thyroid hormones: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81: , 1996

6 124 Kim EY, et al. 12. England ML, Hershman JM: Serum TSH concentration as an aid to monitoring compliance with thyroid hormone therapy in hypothyroidism. Am J Med Sci 292: , Franklyn JA, Black EG, Betteridge J, Sheppard MC: Comparison of second and third generation methods for measurement of serum thyrotropin in patients with overt hyperthyroidism, patients receiving thyroxine therapy, and those with nonthyroidal illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78: , Kaplan MM: Thyroid hormone therapy. What, when, and how much. Postgrad Med 93: , Mandel SJ, Brent GA, Larsen PR: Levothyroxine therapy in patients with thyroid disease. Ann Intern Med 119: , Rosenbaum RL, Barzel US: Levothyroxine replacement dose for primary hypothyroidism decreases with age. Ann Intern Med 96:53-55, Roti E, Minelli R, Gardini E, Braverman LE: The use and misuse of thyroid hormone. Endocr Rev 14: , Sawin CT, Herman T, Molitch ME, London MH, Kramer SM: Aging and the thyroid. Decreased requirement for thyroid hormone in older hypothyroid patients. Am J Med 75: , Toft AD: Thyroxine therapy. N Engl J Med 331: , Woeber KA: Levothyroxine therapy and serum free thyroxine and free triiodothyronine concentrations. J Endocrinol Invest 25: , Cunningham JJ, Barzel US: Lean body mass is a predictor of the daily requirement for thyroid hormone in older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc 32: , Alexander EK, Marqusee E, Lawrence J, Jarolim P, Fischer GA, Larsen PR: Timing and magnitude of increases in levothyroxine requirements during pregnancy in women with hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 351: , da Costa VM, Moreira DG, Rosenthal D: Thyroid function and aging: gender-related differences. J Endocrinol 171: , Wu S-Y, Visser TJ: Thyroid hormone metabolism. 1st ed. pp78-80, Florida, CRC Press, Larsen PR, Silva JE, Kaplan MM: Relationships between circulating and intracellular thyroid hormones: physiological and clinical implications. Endocr Rev 2:87-102, Santini F, Pinchera A, Marsili A, Ceccarini G, Castagna MG, Valeriano R, Giannetti M, Taddei D, Centoni R, Scartabelli G, Rago T, Mammoli C, Elisei R, Vitti P: Lean body mass is a major determinant of levothyroxine dosage in the treatment of thyroid diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90: , Morgan DJ, Bray KM: Lean body mass as a predictor of drug dosage. Implications for drug therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 26: , Salvatore D, Bartha T, Harney JW, Larsen PR: Molecular biological and biochemical characterization of the human type 2 selenodeiodinase. Endocrinology 137: , Bianco AC, Salvatore D, Gereben B, Berry MJ, Larsen PR: Biochemistry, cellular and molecular biology, and physiological roles of the iodothyronine selenodeiodinases. Endocr Rev 23:38-89, Streckfuss F, Hamann I, Schomburg L, Michaelis M, Sapin R, Klein MO, Köhrle J, Schweizer U: Hepatic deiodinase activity is dispensable for the maintenance of normal circulating thyroid hormone levels in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 337: , Jonklaas J, Davidson B, Bhagat S, Soldin SJ: Triiodothyronine levels in athyreotic individuals during levothyroxine therapy. JAMA 299: , 2008

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