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1 Clinical Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Volume 18 ㆍ Number 2 ㆍ October 2011 ORIGINAL ARTICLE 소아의악성종양치료중발생한경련의임상적고찰 공섬김ㆍ이병기ㆍ전소은ㆍ김영미ㆍ임영탁 부산대학교의학전문대학원소아과학교실 Seom Gim Kong, M.D., Byung Ki Lee, M.D., So Eun Jun, M.D., Young Mi Kim, M.D. and Young Tak Lim, M.D. Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea Background: The neurological complications of childhood patients with cancer are caused by brain metastasis, chemotherapy, and infection. Seizure is one of the most important neurological complications of pediatric patients receiving chemotherapy. This study was designed to identify the causes, clinical manifestations, and prognosis of seizures in children receiving cancer treatment. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of pediatric cancer patients with seizures at Pusan National University Hospital from January 2005 to December Results: Among 271 patients, 31 experienced seizures (19 males and 12 females), and the mean age at the first seizure was 8.6 years ( years). Seizures frequently occurred in patients with brain tumors (27.8%), and the types of seizures were generalized seizure in 15 patients (48.4%) and partial in 16 cases (51.6%). Eighteen (62.0%) of 29 patients who underwent a brain magnetic resonance imaging study and 21 (75.0%) of 28 cases who received an electroencephalogram recorded abnormal findings. The causes of seizures were drugs, CNS infections, and brain metastasis each in five cases (16.2%). Drugs were the most common cause in patients with a hematological malignancy (16.2%), whereas brain metastasis was the most common cause in patients with solid tumors (12.9%). Eight (40.0%) of 20 patients who survived received anticonvulsants. Eleven patients (35.5%) expired, and the most common cause of death was progression of the malignancy. Conclusion: Drugs, CNS infection, and brain metastasis of tumors were the most common causes of seizure in children with malignancy. Key Words: Neoplasms, Child, Seizures, Chemotherapy pissn / eissn Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2011;18: Received on August 30, 2011 Accepted on October 10, 2011 책임저자 : 임영탁부산시서구아미동 1 가 10 번지부산대학교의학전문대학원소아과학교실, Tel: Fax: limyt@pusan.ac.kr 서론경련은소아환자에서비교적흔하게발생하는신경학적증상으로 16세이전의소아의 4-10% 정도가경험하게된다 [1]. 소아에서경련의원인은 60% 이상이열성경련이며 85-94% 환자가 6세이전에첫경련을경험한다 [2,3]. 소아청소년종양질환으로항암화학요법을받는환자들에게서는소아청소년종양질환과항함화학요법자체가경련의위험인자가되어경련의빈도가일반소아에비하여높다 [4]. 항암화학요법 119
2 Seom Gim Kong, et al 은경련, 의식변화, 운동장애등다양한신경학적합병증을동반할수있는데 [5], 급성림프모구백혈병으로치료중인환자를대상으로한연구에의하면 15% 정도의환자에서신경학적문제가발생하였다고보고된바있으며 [6,7] 항암화학요법을받거나조혈모세포이식을받은환자를대상으로한연구에서는 8.4% 가신경학적합병증을경험했다고보고된바있다 [8]. 일반적으로가장흔한신경학적합병증은경련으로항암치료중신경학적문제로의뢰된환자중에경련이있었던환자가 % 라고보고되었으며경련의원인도일반적인소아환자와달리독성대사성뇌병증, 뇌전이가가장많다고보고되고있다 [3,4,9,10]. 본연구에서는소아종양성질환으로항암화학요법을받는환자에서경련의발생빈도, 원인및예후를조사해보고자하였다. 대상및방법 2005년 1월부터 2010년 12월까지 6년간부산대학교병원소아청소년과에서종양성질환으로항암화학요법를받은만 18 세이하의환자중경련이발생하였던환자를대상으로최소 6개월이상추적관찰하였다. 응급실, 외래및입원의무기록지를기초로하여성별, 진단당시나이, 진단명, 경련당시나이, 경련형, 경련횟수, 동반된신경증상, 경련의원인이되는신경학적진단명, 뇌파검사나자기공명영상결과등을후향적으로조사하였다. 경련이있었던환자중연구기간까지생존한 20예의환자를대상으로항경련제사용기간및경련의지속여부를조사하였고사망한 11예의환자를대상으로사망원인을조사하였다. 본연구의자료는 SAS 9.2를이용하여통계처리하였고 chi-square test로분석하였으며 P 값이 0.05 미만인경우를유의한것으로하였다. 결과 1) 전체종양성질환환자의분포 6년간종양성질환으로항암화학요법을받은환자는총 271 예였고, 남자가 159예 (58.7%), 여자가 112예 (41.3%) 였다. 백혈병이 144예 (53.2%) 로가장많았으며, 그중급성림프모구백혈병이 115예 (42.5%), 급성골수성백혈병이 26예 (9.6%), 만성골수성백혈병이 3예 (1.1%) 가있었다. 악성림프종은 28예 (10.3%) 였으며비호지킨림프종이 20예 (7.3%), 호지킨병이 8예 (3.0%) 이었고, 뇌종양은 18예 (6.7%) 였으며, 수모세포종이 7예 (2.6%) 로가장많았다. 신경모세포종이 16예 (5.9%), 골육종이 12예 (4.4%), 조직구증식증이 10예 (3.6%), Wilms 종양이 9예 (3.3%) 가있었고, 횡문근육종과망막모세포종이각각 6예 (2.2%) 가있었으며그외다른종양이 22예 (8.2%) 였다 (Table 1). 2) 경련을보인종양환자의종양학적진단 전체종양환자중경련이발생한환자는 31명 (11.4%) 이었다. 기저질환은백혈병이 18예 (58.1%) 로가장많았으며, 급성림프모구백혈병이 14예 (45.2%), 급성골수성백혈병이 3예 (9.7%), 만성골수성백혈병이 1예 (3.2%) 였다. 악성림프종이 2예 (6.5%), 뇌종양이 5예 (16.1%), 신경모세포종이 2예 (6.5%) 가있었다. 전체백혈병 144예중 18예 (12.5%), 전체뇌종양 18예중 5예 (27.8%) 에서경련이발생하여상대적으로뇌종양에서경련발생이유의하게높았다 (P<0.05)(Table 1). 3) 경련을보인환자의임상적특징 경련이있었던환자는모두 31예 (11.4%) 가있었고, 첫경련시연령은평균 8.6세 ( 범위 : 14개월-18세 ) 였다. 2세이하의환자가 3예 (9.7%), 2세이상 6세미만의환자가 8예 (25.8%), 6세이상 10세미만의환자가 5예 (16.1%), 10세이상 14세미만의환자가 8예 (25.8%), 14세이상 18세미만의환자가 7예 (22.6%) 이었다. 남아가 19예 (61.3%), 여아가 12예 (38.7%) 로남녀비율은 1.6:1로남아에서많았으나통계학으로유의한차이는없었다 (Table 2). Table 1. Underlying malignancy of patients with seizures Diagnosis Leukemia ALL AML CML Lymphoma Brain tumor Medulloblastoma Germ cell tumors Others Neuroblastoma Osteosarcoma Wilms tumor Rhabdomyosarcoma Retinoblastoma Histiocytosis Others Total No. of patients (%) 144 (53.2) 115 (42.5) 26 (9.6) 3 (1.1) 28 (10.3) 18 (6.7) 7 (2.6) 5 (1.9) 6 (2.2) 16 (5.9) 2 (4.4) 9 (3.3) 6 (2.2) 6 (2.2) 10 (3.6) 22 (8.2) 271 (100.0) No. of patients with seizure (%) 18 (12.5) 14 (12.2) 3 (11.5) 1 (33.3) 2 (7.1) 5 (27.8) a) 3 (42.9) 2 (40.0) 2 (12.5) 2 (16.7) 2 (20.0) 31 (11.4) a) P<0.05. ALL, Acute lymphoblastic leukemia; AML, Acute myeloid leukemia; CML, Chronic myelogenous leukemia. 120 Vol. 18, No. 2, October 2011
3 Table 2. Age and sex distribution of patients with malignancy and seizures Age (years) < Sex Male Female Table 3. Type and frequency of seizures Seziure type Generalized Tonic-clonic Tonic Clonic Myoclonic Partial Simple Complex Frequency ) 경련에동반된신경학적증상 No. of patients (%) (N=31) 3 (9.7) 8 (25.8) 5 (16.1) 8 (25.8) 7 (22.6) 19 (61.3) 12 (38.7) No. of patient (%) (N=31) 15 (48.4) 12 (38.8) 16 (51.6) 15 (48.4) 14 (45.2) 9 (29.0) 6 (19.3) 경련과함께신경학적증상이동반된경우는 11예 (35.5%) 였으며, 의식저하가 9예 (29.0%), 두통이 2예 (6.5%), 복시, 안면마비와편측마비, 이명이있었던경우가각각 1예 (3.2%) 가있었다. 5) 경련의빈도및종류 경련의빈도는평균 2.3회 ( 범위 : 1-수십회 ) 였으며, 1회였던경우가 14예 (45.2%), 2-3회가 9예 (29.0%), 4-5회가 6예 (19.3%), 6회이상인경우가 2예 (6.5%) 였고, 그중 1예는 6개월이상하루수회씩경련이지속되고있었다. 경련형태는전신경련이 15예 (48.4%), 부분경련이 16예 (51.6%) 이었다 (Table 3). 6) 신경방사선검사, 뇌파검사및검사실소견 경련이있었던환자중 29예 (93.5%) 에서자기공명영상을시행하였고 11예 (38.0%) 가정상소견을보였고 18예 (62.0%) Table 4. Radiologic and laboratory findings of malignancy with seizures MRI findings (N=29) Normal Abnormal Leukoencephalopathy PRES Metastasis Meningoencephalitis Hemorrhage Infacrtion Encephalomalacia Brain edema (post-op) Electroencephalography (n=28) Normal Abnormal Diffuse cerebral dysfunction Focal cerebral dysfunction Focal epileptiform discharge Laboratory findings (n=31) Hypomagnesemia Hyponatremia Hypocalcemia No. of patient (%) 11 (38.0) 18 (62.0) 4 (13.7) 4 (13.7) 4 (13.7) 2 (6.9) 7 (25.0) 21 (75.0) 9 (32.2) 6 (21.4) 6 (21.4) MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; PRES, posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. 에서이상소견이관찰되었다. 가역적후두부뇌병증증후군 (Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, PRES), 약물에의한뇌병증, 뇌전이소견이각각 4예 (13.8%) 가있었고, 수막뇌염이 2예 (6.9%), 뇌출혈, 뇌경색, 뇌연화증, 뇌종양수술후뇌부종이각각 1예 (3.5%) 가있었다. 뇌파검사는 28예 (90.3%) 에서시행하였고시행한환자중 7예 (25.0%) 에서정상소견을보였고 21예 (75.0%) 에서이상소견을보였다. 미만성뇌기능저하가 9예 (32.2%), 국소뇌기능저하가 6예 (21.4%), 간질파를보인경우가 6예 (21.4%) 있었다. 혈액검사에서저마그네슘혈증이 2예 (6.5%), 저칼슘혈증, 저나트륨혈증이각각 1 예 (3.2%) 가동반되었다 (Table 4). 7) 경련의원인 경련의원인은약물, 중추신경계감염, 뇌전이가각각 5예 (16.2%) 로가장많았으며, 가역적후두부뇌병증증후군이 4예 (12.9%), 열성경련이 2예 (6.4%), 간질이 2예 (6.4%), 출혈, 뇌경색, 뇌종양수술후뇌부종, 항암제부작용으로추정되는전해질불균형 ( 저마그네슘혈증 ) 이각각 1예 (3.2%), 원인을모르는경우가 4예 (12.9%) 가있었다. 20명의백혈병과림프종환자에서는약물에의한경우가 5예 (16.2%) 로가장많았으나 Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 121
4 Seom Gim Kong, et al Table 5. Presumped Etiology of seizures in pediatric cancer patients Diagnosis Leukemia and lymphoma (%) Others (%) Total (%) P Drug CNS infection Metastasis PRES Febrile convulsion Epilepsy Brain hemorrhage Cerebral infarction Post-operation Electrolyte imbalance Unclear Total 3 (9.7) 1 (3.1) 20 (64.5) 11 (35.5) CNS, central nerve system; PRES, posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. 31 (100.0) Table 6. The time of the first seizure onset Diagnosis During chemotherapy Induction Maintenance After off-chemotherapy <2 yr 2 yr Leukemia and lymphoma (%) (N=20) 3 (15.0) 16 (80.0) 1 (5.0) Others (%) (N=11) 2 (18.2) 8 (72.7) Total (%) (N=31) 24 (77.4) 통계적으로유의하지는않았고, 백혈병과림프종을제외한 11 명의환자에서는종양의전이에의한경우가 4예 (12.9%) 로통계적으로유의하게많았다 (P<0.05)(Table 5). 8) 항암제투여시기와경련 항암화학요법기간중경련을한경우는모두 29예 (93.6%) 로관해유도요법기간에 5예 (16.2%), 유지요법기간에 24예 (77.4%) 가있었고, 항암화학요법종결후경련한경우도 2예 (6.4%) 가있었다. 백혈병과림프종환자에서첫경련은관해유도요법기간이 3예 (15.0%), 유지요법기간이 16예 (80.0%), 치료종결후 7년뒤에 1예 (5.0%) 가발생하였고, 그외다른종양에서는관해유도요법기간에 2예 (18.2%), 유지요법기간에 8예 (72.7%), 치료종결 1년뒤에 1예가발생하였다. 항암화학요법기간중경련이발생했던환자중경련발생 2주이내항암제를투여하였던환자는모두 10예 (32.3%) 가있었다. 이들중 3예에서는항암제에의해경련이발생한것으로추정되었으며 1예는고용량 methotrexate 정맥투여, 1예는 methotrexate 척수강내투여, 1예는 vincristine 정맥투여가원인으 Table 7. Prognosis of patients with malignancy and seizures Prognosis Survivor Antiepileptics medication >2 yr <2 yr No medication Death Cause of death Refractory cancer Drug Brain hemorrhage Meningoencephalitis Sepsis 로추정되었다 (Table 6). 9) 예후 No. of patients (%) (N=31) 20 (64.5) 4 (20.0) 4 (20.0) 12 (60.0) 11 (35.5) 6 (54.5) 2 (18.2) 연구기간동안생존한환자는모두 20예 (64.5%) 였으며, 그중 2회이상경련이있었던경우는 10예 (50.0%) 였고, 8예 (40.0%) 에서항경련제를투여하였으며평균투여기간은 2.1 년 ( 범위 : 년 ) 이었다. 항경련제로는 oxcarbazepine, clobazam, valproate, lamotrigine, phenobarbital을사용하였고, 2년이상투여한경우가 4예 (20.0%) 있었다. 전체 271예의환자중사망한환자는 47예 (17.3%) 였고, 경련이동반된 31예중사망한환자는 11예 (35.5%) 로경련이발생하였던종양환자에서사망률이의미있게높았다 (P<0.05). 사망환자에서경련의원인은종양의뇌전이가 5예 (45.4%), 약제, 중추신경계감염이각각 2예 (18.2%), 뇌출혈, 전해질불균형에의한경우가각각 1예 (9.1%) 가있었다. 사망원인으로종양이조절되지 122 Vol. 18, No. 2, October 2011
5 않은경우가 6예 (54.5%), 독성대사성뇌병증이 2예 (18.2%), 백혈구증가증으로인한뇌출혈, 수막뇌염, 패혈증이각각 1예 (9.1%) 있었다 (Table 7). 고찰소아청소년암환자들은치료하는과정에서악성종양자체에의한합병증, 항암화학요법이나방사선치료의부작용그리고골수억제로인한감염성질환등다양한문제가발생할수있다. 신경학적합병증으로는경련, 의식저하, 운동장애, 감각장애등이발생할수있으며, 특히경련의빈도는일반소아에서보다높다. 일반적으로응급실에내원하는소아환자에서경련의빈도는 1% 정도로보고되고있으나 [1], 급성림프모구백혈병으로치료중인환자를대상으로한연구에의하면 % 에서경련이동반된것으로보고되고있다 [7,8,11-13]. 본연구에서항암화학요법을받은소아청소년암환자의경련발생빈도는 11.4% 로타연구와유사하였다. Antunes 등 [4,9] 에의하면항암화학요법중신경학적문제로의뢰된환자들가운데혈액종양환자에서경련의빈도가 %, 고형종양환자에서경련의빈도가 % 로혈액종양환자에서경련의빈도가높은것으로보고하였다. 본연구에서는백혈병 (12.5%) 과뇌종양 (27.8%) 에서림프종 (7.1%) 과그외고형종양 (7.4%) 에비해발생빈도가약간높은경향을보였으나, 뇌종양에서만통계적으로유의한결과가나와향후더많은환자군을대상으로한연구가필요할것으로생각된다. 일반소아환자에서경련의호발연령은 2-6세경으로 [2] 이는열성경련의호발연령과상당부분관련이있어보인다. 본연구에서종양의진단당시의평균나이는 7.6세, 첫경련시의평균나이는 8.6세였으며, 경련당시연령의분포는다양하였다. 이는일반적으로소아에서는열성경련의빈도가높은것과는달리소아청소년암환자에서는항암화학요법차체가경련의위험인자가되기때문으로추정된다 [4]. Lee 등 [2] 이 3년간급성발작으로응급실에내원한 433명의소아를대상으로한연구에서경련의발생원인으로열성경련이 69.7% 로가장많았으며, 그외특발성간질이 20.3%, 경한위장관염과관련된경련이 3.7%, 뇌손상이나기형에의한경련이 2.5%, 중추신경계감염에의한경련이 0.5% 였다. 이에반에종양성질환을가진환자에서의경련은대부분비열성경련으로 Schmidt 등 [5] 은항암치료를받았거나조혈모세포이식을받은소아환자에서경련이동반된경우를 5.1% 로보고하였고, 경련의원인으로약제에의한독성이 28.3% 로가장많았고, 감염이 26.1%, 종양이 13.0%, 대사성이상이 1.9% 였 고원인미상인경우가 17.4% 였다. Antunes [4] 이종양성질환으로치료중인환자중경련이발생한 47명을대상으로한연구에서경련의원인으로종양의전이가 17.0%, 고혈압, 대사성이상이각각 12.8%, 약제에의한뇌병증이 10.6%, 중추신경계감염이 6.4% 이었고, 원인이명확하지않은경우가 17.0% 였다. 본연구에서는약제, 중추신경계감염, 뇌전이에의한경련이각 16.2% 로비교적빈도가높았으며, 이는최근에보고된다른연구들과유사한결과였다. Antunes [4] 는종양환자에서경련의원인을백혈병과고형종양으로나누어조사하였는데, 백혈병에서는약제에의한뇌병증과고혈압이가장많았고, 고형종양에서는전이에의한경련이가장많았다고보고하였다. 본연구에서도백혈병및림프종환자에서약제에의한경우와가역성후두부뇌병증증후군에의한경련이가장많았으나통계적으로유의하지않았고, 그외종양에서는종양의전이에의한경우가유의하게많았다. 과거 Ochs 등 [14] 은급성림프모구백혈병환자중경련의원인을확인할수있었던경우를 30% 로보고하였으나, 최근종양성질환으로치료중인환자를대상으로한다른연구에는 83% 에서경련의원인을확인할수있었다고보고하였다 [4]. 본연구에서는 87.1% 로이전연구에비해높았으며, 이는최근자기공명영상등을이용한진단기술의발전에의한것으로추정된다. 본연구에서경련의원인이약물로추정되는경우는 5예로, 특히 3예에서는항암제투여와밀접한상관관계가의심이되었는데, 전신혹은척수강내 methotrexate 투여는급성, 지연성신경학적합병증을유발하며두통, 구토, 기면, 의식장애, 마비, 실어증, 경련등을일으킬수있으며 [15-17] 고용량 methotrexate 항암치료후일시적인급성뇌병증의빈도는 3-15% 정도로보고되고있다 [18-20]. Inaba 등 [17] 은 methotrexate 치료를받은환아중백혈병이나림프종의 0.8%, 고형종의 4.5% 에서신경학적합병증을보고하였고, 그중경련이동반된경우는 2예 (0.3%) 가있었다. Vincristine은일반적으로신경섬유의위축이나손상을유발하면서말초신경장애, 심부건반사소실, 근력저하, 경련등의부작용을유발시킨다 [21]. 본연구에서 1예의급성림프모구백혈병환자에서 vincristine (1.5 mg/m 2 ) 정맥투여후다음날경련이발생하였고자기공명영상에서다발성고신호음영을보였으며뇌파검사에서국소간질파가발견되었다. 최근영상의학적진단방법이발전하면서경련의원인으로가역성후두부뇌병증증후군의빈도가증가하고있다. Antunes [4] 의연구에서는항암화학요법을받는소아종양환자에서고혈압과연관이있는가역성후두부뇌병증증후군을 4.3% 로보고하였으 Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 123
6 Seom Gim Kong, et al 며최근 Morris 등 [22] 의연구에서는소아종양환자중가역성후두부뇌병증증후군으로진단된환자 11예를보고하였고모두경련이발생하였으며항암제와연관이있었다. Lim 등 [23] 은 4년간항암치료를받은소아환자에서자기공명영상을시행하였던 62예를보고하였고이상소견을보였던 12예중 6예가가역성후두부뇌병증증후군으로진단되었다. Morris 등 [22] 의연구에서는 11예모두관해유도화학요법기간동안가역성후두부뇌병증증후군이발생하였으나본연구에서는모두유지요법기간동안에발생하였으며 1예에서만경련발생 2주이내항암제가투여되었으며모두급성림프모구백혈병에서발생하였다. 항암제나면역억제제는모두가역성후두부뇌병증증후군의위험인자가되므로특히백혈병환자에서경련이발생한경우항암제투여후수주가지난경우에도가역성후두부뇌병증증후군을진단에고려하여야한다. 경련을경험한종양환자의예후에대해서는거의보고된바가없는데, 최근급성림프모구백혈병에서경련이동반된환자의 % 에서간질로이행하였다고보고하였다 [24]. 본연구에서는연구기간동안생존한환자중 8예 (40.0%) 에서항경련제를투여하였고, 이는전체환자중 3.0% 로전인구에서간질의유병률이 1% 미만인것과비교했을때높은결과로추정된다. 또한본연구결과종양성질환으로항함화학요법을받은환자중경련이발생하였던환자에서그렇지않은환자에비해사망률이의미있게높았으나, 정확한원인분석을위해서는예후에영향을미치는다른변수들을고려한연구가더필요할것으로생각된다. 본연구는단일기관에서 6년동안악성종양으로치료받은소아환자를대상으로하여비교적짧은기간동안추적관찰을하였다는제한점이있으나악성종양환자에서발생한경련은약물, 중추신경계감염, 종양의뇌전이가주요원인이었고뇌종양에서항암화학요법중경련의발생빈도가의미있게높았다. 결론적으로소아청소년암환자에서경련이있었던경우는경련이없었던환자에서비해사망률이높은경향을보이므로, 소아종양환자를치료하는중에경련을한경우적극적인검사및처치가필요할것으로생각된다. 참고문헌 1. Blumstein MD, Friedman MJ. Childhood seizures. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2007;25: Lee WD, Yoo JW, Lee JS, Lee JH, Cho KL. Clinical review of acute seizures among children who visited the emergency room in Masan Samsung hospital from 2004 to Korean J Pediatr 2008;51: Antunes NL. The spectrum of neurologic disease in children with systemic cancer. Pediatr Neurol 2001;25: Antunes NL. Seizures in children with systemic cancer. Pediatr Neurol 2003;28: Schmidt K, Schulz AS, Debatin KM, Friedrich W, Classen CF. CNS complications in children receiving chemotherapy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: retrospective analysis and clinical study of survivors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008;50: Park SW, Chae SA, Lee JH, et al. Clinical analysis of the pediatric patients with neurological disorders seen in the emergency department. J Korean Child Neurol Soc 2010;18: Rahman AT, Mannan MA, Sadeque S. Acute and long-term neurological complications in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Bangladesh Med Res Counc Bull 2008;34: Aytac S, Yetgin S, Tavil B. Acute and long-term neurologic complications in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Turk J Pediatr 2006;48: Antunes NL, De Angelis LM. Neurologic consultations in children with systemic cancer. Pediatr Neurol 1999;20: Antunes NL. Mental status changes in children with systemic cancer. Pediatr Neurol 2002;27: Kim HG, Cho KS, Lee JW, et al. The clinical manifestations and the effect on prognosis of seizures during acute lymphoblastic leukemia treatment in children. J Korean Child Neurol Soc 2008;16: Kuskonmaz B, Unal S, Gumruk F, Cetin M, Tuncer AM, Gurgey A. The neurologic complications in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients excluding leukemic infiltration. Leuk Res 2006;30: Goldsby RE, Liu Q, Nathan PC, et al. Late-occurring neurologic sequelae in adult survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J Clin Oncol 2010;28: Ochs JJ, Bowman WP, Pui CH, Abromowitch M, Mason C, Simone JV. Seizures in childhood lymphoblastic leukaemia patients. Lancet 1984;2: Mahoney DH Jr, Shuster JJ, Nitschke R, et al. Acute neurotoxicity in children with B-precursor acute lymphoid leukemia: an association with intermediate-dose intravenous methotrexate and intrathecal triple therapy-a Pediatric Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 1998;16: Brouwers P, Poplack D. Memory and learning sequelae in long-term survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia: association with attention deficits. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1990;12: Inaba H, Khan RB, Laningham FH, Crews KR, Pui CH, Daw NC. Clinical and radiological characteristics of methotrexate-induced acute encephalopathy in pediatric patients with cancer. Ann Oncol 2008;19: Rubnitz JE, Relling MV, Harrison PL, et al. Transient encephal- 124 Vol. 18, No. 2, October 2011
7 opathy following high-dose methotrexate treatment in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 1998;12: Walker RW, Allen JC, Rosen G, Caparros B. Transient cerebral dysfunction secondary to high-dose methotrexate. J Clin Oncol 1986;4: Jaffe N, Takaue Y, Anzai T, Robertson R. Transient neurologic disturbances induced by high-dose methotrexate treatment. Cancer 1985;56: Scatchard K, Lee SM. Neurotoxicity of chemotherapy. In: Rees JH, Wen PY, eds. Neuro-Oncology: blue books of neurology series. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders, 2010: Morris EB, Laningham FH, Sandlund JT, Khan RB. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in children with cancer. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007;48: Lim YJ, Kim HJ, Lee YJ, Seol IJ, Lee YH. Clinical features of encephalopathy in children with cancer requiring cranial magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Neurol 2011;44: Maytal J, Grossman R, Yusuf FH, et al. Prognosis and treatment of seizures in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Epilepsia 1995;36: Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 125
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