07. 박재현(p.54-63).hwp
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1 54 Journal of the Korean Society of Propulsion Engineers Vol. 19, No. 6, pp , 2015 Research Paper DOI: Ramki Murugesan a 박경락 a Valery I. Levitas b 양희성 c 박재현 d, * 하동성 e Molecular Level Understanding of Chemical Erosion on Graphite Surface using Molecular Dynamics Simulations Ramki Murugesan a Gyoung Lark Park a Valery I. Levitas b Heesung Yang c Jae Hyun Park d, * Dongsung Ha e a Graduate School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Korea b Department of Aerospace Engineering, Iowa State University, USA c Research Division, Seyeon Engineering and System, Korea d Department of Aerospace and Software Engineering and Research Center for Aircraft Parts Technology, Gyeongsang National University, Korea e The 4 th R&D Institute, Agency for Defense Development, Korea * Corresponding author. parkj@gnu.ac.kr ABSTRACT We present a microscopic understanding of the chemical erosion due to combustion product on the nozzle throat using molecular dynamics simulations. The present erosion process consists of molecule-addition step and equilibrium step. First, either CO 2 or H 2 O are introduced into the system with high velocity to provoke the collision with graphite surface. Then, the equilibrium simulation is followed. The collision-included dissociation and its influence on the erosion is emphasized and the present molecular observations are compared with the macroscopic chemical reaction model. 초 록 본연구에서는고온 / 고압의연소가스에의해야기되는노즐목삭마현상의분자수준메커니즘을분자동역학시뮬레이션을이용하여관찰한다. 노즐목은두개의그래핀으로구성된그래파이트로모델링하고분자동역학시뮬레이션은충분한속도를가지고그래파이트에충돌하는 H 2 O 분자와 CO 2 분자가지속적으로생성되는과정과평형상태의시뮬레이션으로구성된다. 반응을모사할수있는 ReaxFF 포텐셜을사용하며, 충돌에의해야기되는 H 2 O 및 CO 2 분자의해리와화학적삭마와의관계에중점을두고관찰하고자하며, 거시적인관찰결과들과비교하고자한다. Key Words: Chemical Erosion( 화학적삭마 ), Graphite( 그래파이트 ), Molecular Dynamics Simulation ( 분자동역학시뮬레이션 ), Molecular Dissociation( 분자해리 ), Collision-Induced Erosion ( 직접타격삭마 ) Received 25 September 2015 / Revised 4 November 2015 / Accepted 10 November 2015 Copyright C The Korean Society of Propulsion Engineers pissn / eissn Nomenclature This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License( /licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 제 19 권제 6 호 : pre-exponential factor : temperature exponent C(s) : carbon atom in solid phase : activation energy : universal gas constant, J/mol K : temperature 1. 서론 고체로켓엔진은구조가간단하고발사신속성이뛰어날뿐만아니라액체로켓추진기관에비해신뢰도도높은반면가격도저렴하기때문에유도무기의추진기관, 위성발사체용부스터로많이사용되고있다 [1]. Fig. 1에나타난바와같이고체로켓은여러가지부분품으로구성되어있는데, 이중노즐은연소실에서생성된연소가스를팽창시켜열에너지를운동에너지로효율적으로변환시킴으로써비행체에추력을공급하는기능을담당하는부분으로추진기관의성능과직결된다. 특히, 노즐목부분은직접적으로분출가스의유량을통제하는부분으로추진기관성능과가장밀접한관계가있는부분으로, 비행중추진기관이일정한성능을유지하기위해서는비행중에도설계당시와동일한노즐목의형상유지가요구된다. 이를위하여고온 / 고압의사출가스를경험하는노즐목은많은경우고온 / 고압환경에서매우안정적이라고알려진탄소 / 탄소복합재를이용하여제작된다. 하지만노즐목이경험하는극심한고온 / 고압환경은노즐목에서의삭마 (erosion) 를피할수없게하며, 추력향상을위해고체연료에포함되는입자연료 ( 주로알루미늄 ) 등은산화후노즐을통해외부로사출되면서노즐목과의직접충돌하여이로인해전체적인삭마는증가한다. 따라서노즐목에서의삭마현상을정확하게모델링하는것은고체로켓의성능을정확하게예측하는필수적인요소로인식되어많은연구들이있어왔으며, 주로실험결과를이용하여화학적삭마에대한거시적인메커니즘에대한연구가수행되어왔다 [2,3]. 하지만분자수준의미시적인메커니즘을이해하 기위한연구는거의수행된적이없다. 노즐목에서의삭마는뜨거운분출가스가노즐목표면과화학적으로반응하여표면이깎여나가는화학적삭마 (chemical erosion) 와연소가스에포함된입자의직접적인충돌또는연소가스의전단력에의해표면이깎여나가는기계적삭마 (mechanical erosion) 로나누어진다 [4,5]. 화학적삭마는뜨거운분출가스의대부분을구성하고있는이산화탄소와물분자가탄소원자들로구성된노즐목표면과반응하는것으로주요반응식은다음과같은것으로알려져있다 [4]. C(s) + H 2 O CO + H 2 (a) C(s) + CO 2 2C (b) (1) C(s) + OH CO + H (c) Table 1에나타난바와같이각화학반응의반응률 은 H 2 O, CO 2, OH의부분압 ( ) 과반응상수 ( ) 의곱으로주어지며반응상수는다음과같이 Arrhenius 식으로표현된다. exp (2) Table 1에따르면 Eq. 1(b) 와 Eq. 1(c) 반응에비하여 Eq. 1(a) 반응은동일한조건에서 100배이상빠른속도로진행됨을보여주고있으며, 이는화학적삭마의대부분이물분자에의해서야 Fig. 1 Schematic of solid-propellant rocket.
3 56 Ramki Murugesan 박경락 Valery I. Levitas 양희성 박재현 하동성 한국추진공학회지 Table 1. Kinetic data for heterogeneous surface reactions[2-4]. Surface Reaction, kcal/mol, kg/(m 2 s) C(s) + H 2 O CO + H kg/(m 2 s atm 0.5 ) C(s) + CO 2 2CO kg/(m 2 s atm 0.5 ) C(s) + OH CO + H kg K 0.5 /(m 2 s atm) 기됨을의미한다. 산소원자의탄소에대한반응성이매우강하다는사실 [6] 을고려하면이는상당히흥미로운현상인데, 물분자는산소원자를한개를가지고있는것에반하여이산화탄소분자는산소원자를두개를가지고있어분자들의해리가일어나는경우이산화탄소가내어놓을수있는산소원자의수가더많아반응성이더높을것으로예상되기때문이다. 본연구에서는화학적삭마의메커니즘을분자동역학 (molecular dynamics, MD) 시뮬레이션을이용하여분자수준에서살펴보고자한다. 앞서살펴본바와같이현재까지의화학적삭마메커니즘에대한연구는대부분거시수준의방법을사용하여수행되었으며, 본연구는분자동역학을이용하여화학적삭마에대한연구를수행한첫번째사례이며, 삭마현상에대한근본적인이해를가능하게할것이다. 본논문의구성은다음과같다. 2장에서는본연구에사용된 ReaxFF 포텐셜에대해서간단히기술하였다. 3 장에서는화학적삭마를분자수준에서모사하기위하여도입한본연구의시스템과분자동역학시뮬레이션기법에대해서기술하였다. 4장과 5 장에서는삭마현상에대한분자동역학시뮬레이션결과들과그에관한토의를기술하였으며, 마지막으로 6장에서는 3, 4, 5장의연구결과들을요약하고, 향후연구에대한몇가지아이디어들을제시하였다. 2. ReaxFF 포텐셜화학반응을수반하는분자동역학시뮬레이션을수행하기위해서는기존의고전적인분자동역학시뮬레이션대신화학반응을고려할수있는포 텐셜을사용하여야한다. 본연구에서는칼텍의 Goddard 그룹에서개발된 ReaxFF 포텐셜을사용한다 [7]. ReaxFF 포텐셜은다양한경우에적용되어검증되고파라미터들이개발되었는데, 특히탄화수소연소현상에대한파라미터도개발되어있다 [8]. ReaxFF에서시스템의포텐셜 은다음과같이주어진다. (3) 위식에서 는결합에너지, 는원자주변의고립전자쌍에의한고립전자쌍에너지, 는주어진원자쌍에대한굽힙에너지를의미하며각각다음과같이주어진다. exp (4) exp exp (5) (6) ReaxFF는원자주변의전자들의수가평형상태의경우와다른경우에대한보정에너지항을포함하고있는데, 와 이다. 은과포화배위상태 (over-coordination) 를의미하며, 결합전자수와주변원자들과의결합차수 (bond order) 의차이가 0보다큰경우로정의된다. 반대로결합차수가결합전자수보다작은경우에는불포화배위상태이며 만큼의보정이요구된다.
4 제 19 권제 6 호 와 은각각아래에주어져있다. exp exp (12) sin exp exp exp (7) (8) 탄화수소중알켄 (alkene) 과같이두개의이중결합이최외각전자를공유하는경우시스템의안정성을표현할수있는에너지항이필요하며이를 penalty 에너지 로고려하였다. 그리고탄화수소계열의분자들에서일어나는공액탄화수소 (conjugated hydrocarbon) 현상을포함하기위하여 항을도입하였다. 이값은네개의원자들에의한공액 (conjugation) 을표현하는항이지만탄화수소분자들의공액을표현하기에는충분한것으로알려져있다. 그외에비틀림각에의한에너지를표현하는비틀림에너지 와분자들사이에존재할수있는수소결합에대한에너지 또한포함하고있다. 위에서설명한에너지들에대한관계식들은다음에주어져있다. 또한 ReaxFF 포텐셜은두개의탄소원자에의한 C 2 분자의에너지를고려할수있도록 를 도입하며, 일산화탄소의삼중결합을모사할수있도록 항을도입한다. if if exp exp exp exp (13) (14) 마지막으로비결합 (non-bonded) 포텐셜인반데르발스 (van der Waals) 포텐셜 과쿨롱포텐셜 은다음과같이표현된다. exp exp (15) exp exp (9) (16) cot cos sin sin sin sin (10) 위의 Eq 에나타난파라미터들은참고문헌 [7,8] 에자세히설명되어있다. cos cos exp (11) cos 3. 시뮬레이션시스템및 MD 기법 본연구에서는탄소 / 탄소노즐목의화학적삭
5 58 Ramki Murugesan 박경락 Valery I. Levitas 양희성 박재현 하동성 한국추진공학회지 Fig. 2 Schematic of MD simulation for H 2 O addition. The H 2 O molecules are formed in specified region with negative z-velocity. Top boundary of simulation box is bounded by a reflecting wall to avoid the loss of particles. 마현상을분자동역학기법을사용하여시뮬레이션하기위하여 Fig. 2에주어진바와같이 x-방향길이와 y-방향길이가각각 = nm 와 = nm 인그래핀 2장으로구성된이중층 (2-layer) 그래파이트를고려하였다. 본연구에서는그래핀과그래파이트의용어를구별하여사용하였으며, 육각의탄소원자링이반복되는단일층구조를그래핀, 그리고 2개이상의그래핀이모여층을이룬구조를그래파이트로구별하여기술하였다. 화학적인삭마는가장바깥쪽을구성하는위쪽의그래핀에서만일어나며아래쪽의그래핀은위쪽그래핀을지지하고그래파이트의물리적인성질과삭마현상에서노즐목표면온도를할당해주기위한구실만을수행한다. 본연구에서노즐목표면온도는 1000 K로설정하였으며, 이는아래쪽그래핀의온도를 1000 K로유지함을의미한다. 계산영역 (simulation box) 의 z- 방향의길이는 = 10 nm으로설정되었다. x-방향과 y-방향으로는주기적인경계조건 (periodic boundary condition) 을사용하였으므로무한대의면적을가진그래파이트를대표한다고볼수있다. 무한대의면적을이렇게작은크기의시스템으로대표하는경우사이징효과에의해서시뮬레이션에사용된그래파이트의강성이실제보다더욱 크게나타날수있는데본연구에서는그러한것을방지하기위하여 Srinivasan and van Duin [6] 을참고하여아래쪽그래핀아래에 4개의고정된원자들을배치하고그원자들과그래핀사이에스프링상수를도입하여연결하였다. 이렇게함으로써그래파이트의연성은그대로유지하면서 (over-rigidity 현상은피하면서 ) 시스템의 flying icecube[9] 는피할수있다. 각각의그래핀은 448개의탄소원자로구성되어있으며총그래파이트를구성하는탄소원자수는 896개다. 그래파이트는아래쪽그래파이트의위치가 z = 3 nm이되도록위치시켰으며 z = 10 nm 인곳에는반사벽면 (reflected wall) 을위치시켜서원자들이시스템의외부로유출되는것을방지하였다. 본연구의분자동역학시뮬레이션에사용된시간간격은 Δt = 0.1 fs이며, Verlet 알고리즘을사용하여속도를적분하였다. H 2 O분자의경우, 매번 1000번째 step 마다하나씩 7.9 nm < z < 8.3 nm의영역에서 z-방향으로 0.12 A /fs의속도를가지고입사된다. 이과정은 100 개의 H 2 O 분자또는 CO 2 분자가유입될때까지반복되었다. CO 2 의경우에는 H 2 O분자와동일한운동에너지를가지도록생성되는 CO 2 분자에 H 2 O분자 속도의 만큼의속도를할당하 였으며, 분자들이생성되는위치도 H 2 O분자와동일한시각에그래파이트표면에충돌하도록 5.9 nm < z < 6.3 nm에서생성되었다. 100 개의분자들이유입되기까지는 10 ps의시간이걸리며, 10 ps 이후에는더이상의입자유입없이 번의시간간격동안시뮬레이션을계속하였다 ( 평형단계 ). 분자동역학시뮬레이션에서다루는영역은현실적으로나노미터길이, 나노초정도의시간스케일이며, 마이크로초이상의특성시간및마이크로미터이상의특성길이를가진현상의분자수준메카니즘을분자동역학을이용하여이해하기위해서는물리적인요소들은유지하면서도현상을가속화할수있는적절한기법을도입하는것이요구된다. 이를위하여본연구에서는주입되는분자에높은속도 0.12 A /fs를할당하
6 제 19 권제 6 호 Fig. 3 Dissociation of H 2 O molecule into H and OH due to the collision with graphene surface. The red ball indicates oxygen atom while the white one represents hydrogen atom. 였다. 이는비록분자하나의온도로는 10 6 K에해당되는온도이지만, 기체장의온도는기체분자의평균속도에의해결정되지하나의분자의온도에의해좌우되지않는다는점을고려할때충분히물리적인의미를가진가속화기법으로사료된다. 삭마현상이일어나는노즐목표면의온도는상당히고온이다. 본연구에서는삭마현상이일어나는노즐목표면의온도가 1000 K라고가정하였다. 분자동역학시뮬레이션에서는삭마가일어나는첫번째그래핀내부에서는탄소원자의움직임에대한어떠한제한도없는 NVE 앙상블을사용하여야하므로이러한온도효과는아래쪽에위치한그래핀에적용하여야한다. 본연구에서는아래쪽그래핀에 NVT 앙상블을사용하여온도를 1000 K로유지하였다. Thermostat은 Berendsen thermostat[10] 을사용하였으며, time constant 는 0.1 ps를적용하였다 [8]. 본연구에서분자동역학시뮬레이션을위해사용한소프트웨어는미국의샌디아국립연구소에서개발된 LAMMPS(Large-scale Atomic/ Molecular Massively Parallel Simulator)[11] 이며, Xeon 프로세서 E v3를 CPU로탑재한워크스테이션에서수행되었다. 4. 분자유입단계 Fig. 4 Molecular Configuration at t = 4.0 ps. The marked oxygens (dashed red) and the marked hydrogen (dashed white) are attached on the surface. H 2 O분자가그래파이트표면과충돌하는경우물분자가그충격에의해해리되어 OH는그래핀표면과결합을형성하고, H기는그래핀표면에서반사된다 (Fig. 3 참조 ). 그래핀표면과결합한 OH는 H가추가적으로더해리되어그래핀표면에산소원자만그래핀의탄소원자와결합한상태로존재한다. 해리된수소원자는수소원자들끼리결합하여수소분자를형성하는경우도있지만, 많은경우수소원자가그래핀표면에흡착된다 (Fig. 4 참조 ). 흡착된수소원자는 H 2 O분자와의충돌이나그래핀자체의요동에의해서그래핀표면에생성되는구멍이나어긋난 (dislocation) 탄소원자의불포화결합 (dangling bond) 를부동화 (passivation) 하여그래핀표면의결합 (defect) 을안정화한다. 해리된 OH는그래핀표면에흡착될뿐만아니라표면으로부터이탈하기도하여, Fig. 5에보이는바와같이상당히많은 OH가기체상에존재하게된다. 기체중의 OH들은다시그래핀표면과충돌을통해반응하며다시흡착되기도한다. 흡착된 OH의산소원자는첫번째그래핀층에위치한탄소원자와매우강한결합을형성하며, 탄소원자의원자진동 (atomic vibration) 과는다른특성을가지며진동하게되어 OH가결합된영역을중심으로추가적인결함 (defect) 이나어긋나기 (dislocation) 를그래핀표면에야기한다. 4.1 H 2 O 분자유입 MD 시뮬레이션 본연구의분자동역학시뮬레이션에따르면 4.2 CO 2 분자유입 MD 시뮬레이션 이산화탄소분자의경우에는 Fig. 6 에서나타난
7 60 Ramki Murugesan 박경락 Valery I. Levitas 양희성 박재현 하동성 한국추진공학회지 5. 평형단계 Fig. 5 OH groups in simulation box at the end of addition stage. Other molecules are made invisible for convenience. A hole near OH group is also observed. 5.1 H 2 O 그래파이트평형MD 시뮬레이션앞서설명한바와같이 10 ps 이후에는분자가더이상생성되지않고, 유입된 100개의기체분자와 2개의그래핀층으로구성된그래파이트를포함한평형상태 (equilibrium state) 시뮬레이션을 10 ps 동안수행하였다. 본연구에서평형상태란다른외력이존재하지않는경우를의미한다. 평형상태시뮬레이션동안에도 H 2 O 및 CO 2 분자는그래파이트표면과지속적으로충돌 / 반사를반복한다. 실제로그래핀표면에서의반응은기체분자들로부터에너지가충분히전달되어반응의활성화에너지장벽 (activation energy barrier) 을넘어야하므로, 실제적인삭마는평형단계에서일어난다. Fig. 7은 H 2 O분자에대한평형상태시뮬레이션결과를보여준다. 평형상태가시작되는시점인 t = 10 ps에서는그래핀으로부터떨어진탄소원자가전혀존재하지않는다. 하지만, 시간이 t = 12, 14, 15, 17, 20 ps로진행됨에따라, 점점더많은양의탄소원자들이그래핀에서떨어져나온다. 이때그래핀으로부터탄소원자가떨어지는영역은산소원자또는 OH기가결합되어있는지역으로앞서언급한바와같이 OH와탄소원자사이의상이한진동특성이이를야기한다. Fig. 7에서는이러한현상을대비적으로관찰하기위하여각각의 time-step에서탄소원자만으로그린그림과 H 2 O분자까지포함한그림을함께표현하였다. Fig. 6. Reflection of CO 2 molecules. CO 2 A is in the reflecting process while CO 2 B is in the incident stage. The cyan balls indicates the carbon atoms in CO 2 initially. 바와같이충돌이일어나더라도탄소와산소사이의강한이중결합때문에분자의해리가잘일어나지않고, 이산화탄소의형상을유지한상태로그래핀표면에서반사된다. 5.2 CO 2 그래파이트평형MD 시뮬레이션 CO 2 분자는평형단계에서도그래파이트표면에삭마를거의야기하지못하며 100,000 단계즉 10 ps 동안단 1개의탄소만이 CO를형성하면서그래핀에서이탈된다. 5.1절의내용과비교할때 H 2 O분자의경우에는 H 2 O분자에서해리되어생성되는 OH와탄소원자사이의화학반응에의하여그래파이트표면에서쉽게삭마를야기하는반면에, CO 2 의경우에는 CO 2 자체의결합이매우강해서기계적인삭마와유사하게직접적인타격에의해서만삭마를야기할수있다. 하
8 제 19 권제 6 호 Fig. 7 Visualization of MD simulation for H 2 O-graphite equilibrium stage. At each time step, in the left plot only the carbon atoms are presented while in the right plot all the participating atoms are shown together. The marked carbon atoms with dashed red circle indicates the atoms detached from the graphene surface. 지만, 이산화탄소의크기및속도가기계적인삭마를야기하기에는충분하지않으므로, 삭마가잘생성되지않는것으로생각할수있다. 따라서이러한분자동역학시뮬레이션결과는 Table 1에서 H 2 O분자-그래파이트화학반응계수가 100 배정도크다는거시적인관찰결과와일치하는결과로사료된다. 6. 결론본연구에서는고온 / 고압의연소가스에의해야기되는노즐목삭마현상의분자수준메커니즘을분자동역학시뮬레이션을이용하여관찰하였 다. 노즐목은 2-layer 그래파이트로모델링하였으며그래파이트의온도는 NVT 앙상블을이용하여아래쪽그래핀의온도를 1000 K로유지하는방법을통하여 1000 K로유지하였다. 이에반해위쪽그래핀은 NVE 앙상블이적용되어삭마에의해야기된탄소원자의이탈 (detachment) 을모사하였다. 연소가스의주성분인 CO 2 와 H 2 O는 10 ps 동안그래파이트표면에서일정한높이가떨어진거리에서생성되어그래핀의표면으로입사되었다. 100개의분자들이입사된이후의시스템은외부교란없이다시 10 ps 동안평형상태시뮬레이션을수행하였다. 분자동역학시뮬레이션에의하면 H 2 O분자는그래핀과충돌하여 H 와 OH로해리되며, OH는산소원자의반응성
9 62 Ramki Murugesan 박경락 Valery I. Levitas 양희성 박재현 하동성 한국추진공학회지 때문에쉽게그래핀과결합한다. 결합된 OH는주변의탄소원자와다른원자진동특성을가지므로, 탄소원자가그래핀에서쉽게떨어져나가도록한다. 해리된 H원자또한그래핀에서생성되는불포화결합을부동화하여그래핀의특징적인자기치유 (self-healing) 현상이일어나는것을방지한다. 이와는달리 CO 2 분자는 C와 O 사이의이중결합이매우강하여그래핀과충돌하더라도해리가일어나지않는다. 대신 CO 2 는분자자체의모멘텀에의한직접타격으로삭마를야기하는데, H 2 O가야기하는반응성삭마에비해그효과가매우적다. 최종적으로한개의탄소원자만이그래핀에서떨어지는데, 이를열유속을삭마율로나눈값으로표현하면대략 m 3 /MW s에해당된다. 분자동역학으로관찰된이러한분자수준의메커니즘은 탄소재질의삭마는대부분 H 2 O와그래핀의탄소원자와의반응에의해일어난다 는거시적인관찰결과와매우잘일치한다. 본연구는노즐목에서일어나는화학적인삭마현상을분자동역학을이용하여분자수준에서이해하고자하는첫번째시도로, 우선고온의반응열유동장효과를무시할수있을정도로낮은온도의고온한계인 1000 K를선택하여해석을수행하였으며실제노즐목에근사한온도인 2000 ~ 3000 K의표면온도를고려한분자동역학해석연구가수행중이다. 이와함께분자수준의정보에서거시적인정량물성치를획득하기위한연구또한진행중이다. 후기이논문은국방과학기술원 (ADD) 의지원을받아수행된연구이며, 이에감사드립니다. References 1. Sutton, G.P. and Biblarz, O., Rocket Propulsion Elements, 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, N.Y., U.S.A., Bradley, D., Dixon-Lewis, G., El-Din Habik, S. and Mushi, E.M.J., The Oxidation of Graphite Power in Flame Reaction Zones, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, Vol. 20, Issue 1, pp , Chelliah, H.K., Makino, A., Kato, I., Araki, N. and Law, C.K., Modeling of Graphite Oxidation in a Stagnation-point Flow using Detailed Homogeneous and Semiglobal Heterogeneous Mechanisms with Comparisons to Experiments, Combustion and Flame, Vol. 104, Issue 4, pp , Thakre, P. and Yang, V., Chemical Erosion of Carbon Carbon/Graphite Nozzles in Solid-Propellant Rocket Motors, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp , Thakre, P., Rawat, R., Clayton, R. and Yang, V., Mechanical Erosion of Graphite Nozzle in Solid-Propellant Rocket Motor, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp , Srinivasan, S.G. and van Duin, A.C.T., Molecular-Dynamics-Based Study of the Collisions of Hyperthermal Atomic Oxygen with Graphene using the ReaxFF Reactive Force Field, Journal of Physical Chemistry A, Vol. 115, No. 46, pp , van Duin, A.C.T., Dasgupta, S., Lorant, F. and Goddard, W.A., ReaxFF: A Reactive Force Field for Hydrocarbons, Journal of Physical Chemistry A, Vol. 105, No. 41, pp , Chenoweth, K., van Duin, A.C.T. and Goddard, W.A., A ReaxFF Reactive Force Field for Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Hydrocarbon Oxidation, Journal of Physical Chemistry A, Vol. 112, No. 5, pp , Harvey, S.C., Tan, R.K.Z. and Cheatham
10 제 19 권제 6 호 Ⅲ, T.E., The Flying Ice Cube: Velocity Rescaling in Molecular Dynamics Leads to Violation of Energy Equipartition, Journal of Computational Chemistry, Vol. 19, No. 7, pp , Berendsen, H.J.C., Postma, J.P.M., van Gunsteren, W.F., DiNola, A. and Haak, J. R., Molecular-Dynamics with Coupling to an External Bath, Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 81, No. 8, pp , Plimpton, S.J., Fast Parallel Algorithms for Short-range Molecular Dynamics, Journal of Computational Physics, Vol. 117, Issue 1, pp. 1-19, 1995.
11 ISSN (Print) ISSN (Online) Journal of the Korean Society of Propulsion Engineers (Volume 19, Number 6) (December 1, 2015)
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