80 the process by which the four string bent-neck lute, which was transmitted to Japan from Otina, was transformed independently within Japan. In Japa

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan Haruko Komoda(Musashino Academia Musicae, Japan) 1. Introduction K orea and Japan have received much of their culture from China. While this received culture has been preserved in its ancient form in both countries, there has also been independent development by people in Korea and Japan of their own new musical cultures. In this paper, I wish to take the four-string bent-neck lute of Eastern Asia and consider which aspects of this musical instrument have undergone transformation and transmission over time and area. In the first section, I shall trace the process of transformation that has occurred with regards to the Chinese pipa and, taking as examples actual instruments as well as drawings of instruments, introduce what elements of the ancient pipa (Chinese lute) were transmitted without transformation in the lute music traditions of Japan and Korea. Through this I will show that the ancient musical culture of China is preserved to some extent in the musical cultures of the countries surrounding China. In the second section, I will use the most recent research in this field to explain

80 the process by which the four string bent-neck lute, which was transmitted to Japan from Otina, was transformed independently within Japan. In Japan, while the ancient form of the Chinese pipa has been preserved, at the same time, new forms of the biwa (Japanese lute) were developed from the imported Chinese pipa. It can therefore be said that both phenomena - transmission with transformation and transmission without significant transformation in musical culture - can be seen in the history of biwa music in Japan. I would like to point out that I have conducted my research primarily based on the scholarly writings and resources that are available in Japan. I also want to state that a critical assessment of the source materials in this paper is not yet complete. Existent musical instruments may have undergone repair. Drawings might not fully reflect the details of an actual musical instrument. They may include the artist's impressions. 2 The History of the pipa in China - its transmission to Korea and Japan 2.1. Introduction of the four string bent-neck pipa to China China throughout its long history has often controlled vast territories. As a result of this, music from various regions was brought to China, mixed with local traditions and in tum spread to other areas. Through China, cultures and peoples whom it would have been impossible for Korea and Japan to have direct contact with became accessible. Musical traditions and instruments were part of this exchange and the four string bent-neck lute is an example of one of these instruments. The four-string lute has its origins in western Asia and was transmitted to Otina along the Silk Road. Recently, the Japanese scholar Ataru Sotomura has disputed the historical theories established by Kishibe (Kishibe 1936) saying that the introduction of four string pipa to China would have been

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 81 (Plate 1) (Plate 2) in the 6 th century at the latest and to the Northern Dynasties (Sotomura 2005: 4). Furthermore Sotomura stated that the name "qiuci pipa" or quxian pipa refers to the four string bent-neck lute and not the five string straight-neck lute (Sotomura 2001: 65). I would like to introduce as examples two ancient Buddhist drawings of this instrument(plate 1 and 2). As can be seen in these drawings, the body of this four string bent neck lute is quite wide. It is held horizontally and played with a large plectrum. 2.2. Sui and the Tang dynasty pipa and the biwa in Japanese gagaku Later in the Sui dynasty (581-619) and the Tang dynasty (618-907), pipa was played throughout China. The Japanese envoys who visited China during the Sui and Tang Dynasties brought some of these instruments to Japan. A number of these instruments remain in the Imperial Repository, Shosoin (plate 3). Moreover, without any significant change, the same instruments are used in the gagaku ensemble in Japan today. Looking at some of the instruments in the ShOsoin, the bodies of the lutes are wide, with four strings and four frets, there are two crescent-shaped sound holes in the front piece of the instrument, not dissimilar to two eyes. They display characteristics from the Chinese ancient four string bent-neck lute. In present-day Japanese gagaku, this biwa is held in a horizontal fashion

82 (Plate 3) and played with a large plectrum. This is the same as the Chinese drawings in plates 1 and 2. In drawings thought to be of the Tang dynasty Imperial Court, we can confirm the presence of pipa of the same form as those in the Imperial Repository in Japan. I would like to present two examples (plate 4 and 5). In the plate 4, we can see a four-string bent neck lute with a wide body, a large plectrum, a plectrum guard, soundholes, horizontal holding position, and xiang (frets on the neck of the instrument). In plate 5, the same characteristics are observed though a plectrum guard and sound holes are (Plate 4) Gongyue tu (Plate 5) Han Xizai ye yan tu

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 83 (Plate 6) I in "Gong yue tu" not clearly seen. In a drawing also reputed to be of the Tang dynasty Imperial Court, we see a pipa that is slightly different (plate 6). In this case, we see an instrument that differs from the other illustrations. There are frets not just on the neck of the instrument, but also four to six pin (frets on the body of the instrument). Moreover, it is not being played with a plectrum but using ones fingers. This shows that the number of frets being used had started to increase and that playing with the fingers was taking the place of the plectrum. Furthermore, to play with the fingers was written as m (chou) and, according to the Tongdian, its technique was earlier mentioned in the Feng su tong which was written in the Later Han dynasty (25-225) (Sotomura 2001: 67). It is unlikely that this was a change that began for the first time at the end of the Tang dynasty. 2.3. The Song dynasty and nanguan pipa It was only possible to find a few examples of drawings from the Song dynasty. As examples of pipa from this period there are the wall drawings at the Dunhuang and Yulin caves (plate 7 and 8).

84 (Plate 7) Pipa in Dunhuang cave (Plate 8) Pipa in Yulin cave These two mural paintings contain depictions of bent-neck wide bodied pipa, held rather horizontally and played with a plectrum, in other words the pipa of the Sui and Tang Dynasties. I could not find any examples of instruments or illustrations of pipa dating from the Yuan dynasty. It is believed that the pipa of the Song dynasty is best preserved in the present-day pipa of the nanguan music in Fujian Province (plate 9 and 10). (Plate 9) (Liu 1994: 220)10 (Plate 10) Kunitachi College of Music Kunitachi College of Music

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 85 The nanguan pipa has 4 xiang and 10 pin. For the front piece, a relatively light wood such as paulownia is used. The nanguan pipa of plate 10 is 2.3 kilograms in weight. It is sounded using the fingers which puts it in common with the pipa of the Ming dynasty, however the roundness of the instrument's contour is more similar to the Tang dynasty pipa. The instrument is held relatively horizontal, similar to the illustrations of the Tang dynasty pipa. 2.4. Korea The tangbip'a illustrated in the Korean Akhak Kwebom written in 1492 is similar to the Song dynasty pipa and the nanguan pipa. This tangbip'a had 4 xiang and 8 pin (depending on the method used for counting, this can also be said to be 7 pin). The shape of the sound holes and the string hole section are similar to both the Tang and Song dynasty pipa. At the back of the instrument there is a strap which would indicate ( Plate 11) tangbip'a in Akhak Kwebom ( Plate 12) Song dynasty pipa

86 that, as with the Song pipa, it may have been held horizontally. In this illustration, it can be seen that both large wooden plectra and picks are indicated as having been used. According to the Akhak Kwebom, plectra were used for tangak pieces and picks for hyangak pieces. The present-day tangbip'a has 3 xiang and 7 pin, but whether this was the case historically is not clear. However, with regard to the shape of the xiang, the tangbip'a of the Kungnip Kugagwon has rectangular-shaped xiang as opposed to the rounded or triangular xiang of the Chinese pipa. There are some tangbip'a at Musashino Academia Musicae and Kunitachi College of Music (plate 13 and 14). Plate 13 is a Korean made instrument purchased by Musashino Academia Musicae in 1977. Compared with the instrument in the Kugagwon, the xiang and pinare the same shape, material and number - 16 in total (the first and second xiang have come off, but are evidenced by traces of glue). The position of the xiang, however, is different from those of the Kugagwon tangbip'a. Also, there is no strap on the Musashino Academia Musicae ( Plate 13) ( Plate 14)

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 87 instrument. The tangbip'a illustrated in plate 14 was made to order at a music instrument store in central Seoul around 1980. However, the fact there is a ''bridge'' close to the string hole section on the sound board is unexpected and is the only example of its kind. These tangbip'a that are in Japanese museums are instruments that were constructed after the tangbip'a had ceased to be played in Korea. In the historical sense, how they may serve as research material is not yet clear but, significantly, the instruments are round bodied and wide, the front piece of the each instrument is made with paulownia wood and all the instruments are light (a little over two kilograms) which makes them quite similar to the nanguan pipa. 2.5. The Ming dynasty With the Ming dynasty, we first encounter existing historical instruments in China(plate 15, 16, 17 and 18). The Ming dynasty lasted for 300 years. With regard to plate 15 and 16, it is not possible to say when the instruments date from. However, the Ming pipa shown in plate 17 was brought to Japan in the 17 th Century. Based on, ( Plate IS) (Liu 1994: 216) ( Plate 16) (Zhuan 2001: 17) ( Plate 17) ( Plate 18)

88 this fact, it is clearly possible to state that by the end of the Ming dynasty, the pipa had developed to this point. These Ming pipa are quite different from the pipa of the Tang and Song Dynasties. To begin with, the shape of the instrument is much narrower than the earlier pipa. Next, besides the 4 xiang on the neck, there are a total of 10 pin on the body of the instrument. There is no plectrum guard. There is a small pick with the Ming pipa that was brought to Japan (illustrated in E-3). In other words, it would be fair to say that it was not played with a large plectrum but rather with the fingers or a pick. The Ming pipa is made with light material. The pipa in plate 18 is about 1 kilogram in weight. The Japanese gagakubiwa which retains the shape of the Tang pipa is 5 to 6 kilograms in weight. The angle of the peg box to the neck of the instrument is very large. While it has the two characteristic crescent shapes on the front of the instrument, the sound holes are very small and the crescent shapes are engraved on the body of the instrument as though only for decoration. On the other hand, similarities to the Tang pipa are that it has four strings, a bent neck, and the string hole section and the end of the peg box are also similar in shape. Based on these observations, it is fair to assume that the Ming pipa developed from the Tang period pipa. Plate 18 is part of the collection in the Instrument Museum of Musashino Academia Musicae. The only thing known about it is that it is a Chinese pipa. There are nine pinon the front piece of the instrument, which is one less than the other Ming pipa shown here. However, it has crescent shaped sound holes on the front piece of the instrument. The size of the string hole section (height-wise) is also quite long, and in general contour, it seems closer to a Ming pipa. 2.6. The Qing dynasty The structure of the pipa does not appear to have changed significantly during the Qing dynasty (plate 19, 20 and 21). In contour, the shape of the Qing instrument is very similar to that of the Ming pipa.

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 89 ( Plate 19) (Liu 1994: 217) ( Plate 20 ) (Liu 1994: 218) ( Plate 21 ) (Liu 1994: 219) Looking at these examples, it is apparent that the pipa of the Qing dynasty kept the main features of the Ming dynasty pipa. It has 4 xiang, 10 pin, a narrow body and no plectrum. The string hole section is a little shorter than the Ming pipa but it is essentially the same shape. All of them differ from the Ming pipa in that none of them have crescent shaped soundholes. Plate 19 is the same as the modern Chinese pipa in that the very top of the pegbox is shaped such that it curls up and out to the front. For this reason, it may be a more recent instrument than the others. The Qing dynasty lasted for 300 years with much change during this time. Which of these three pipa is the oldest is impossible for me to say. 2.7. Minshingaku in Japan At the beginning of the 19 th Century, the Qing dynasty pipa was brought to Japan and used as a part of Chinese ensemble music. 1his ensemble music was known as shil1gakuor minshingaku and was very popular. The Minshingaku biwa in plate 22 has 4 xiang and 10 pin. Its narrow contour is similar to the Qing pipa. It is played with a very small pick and

90 ( Plate 22) (Tanabe 1975: 64) it has a pick guard which mark it as different from the Qing pipa. 2.8. Rylikyu There was also the biwa used in uzagaku, the court music of the former (Plate 23) (Tokugawa Art Gallerty) (Plate 24) (Okinawa Prefectural Museum)

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 91 RyUkyu. kingdom in the southernmost part of Japan (present-day Okinawa). It is narrow bodied, like the Qing pipa (plate 23 and 24). Plate 23 has four xiang and 13 pin. Plate 24 is picture of a performance in 1832. The pipa has 4 xiang and 8 pin. It is a little rounder but it shows an Okinawan youth playing the pipa of the Qing dynasty. That the year is clearly indicated makes this of great value in our research. 2.9. Contemporary Chinese Pipa Last of all, I would like to take a look at the pipa used in modem Chinese music. In the first half of the 20 th Century, the shape of the pipa differed according to the various schools of pipa music. I would like to take a look at the one in Musashino Academia Musicae that has become the standard instrument today (plate 25). ( Plate 25 )

92 At the top of the instrument, the tuning peg box is curled around to the front, the body of the instrument has become wider and there are 6 xiang and 24 or 25 pin. This instrument differs considerably from the pipa of the Qing dynasty. This closes the explanation of the changes that have occurred to the pipa in China, as well as a comparison with the pip' a of Korea and the biwa of Japan. The process of establishing the trustworthiness of the material evidence and the dating of the same now begins. In this paper, I have not considered the lute of Vietnam which falls into the same lute family as that of China. It has 4 xiang and 9 pin. I have come to appreciate the necessity for an understanding of the history of the four string bent neck lute with regard to the whole of the East Asian region. 3. Biwa in Japan 3.1. The introduction of the biwa into Japan The 4 string bent-neck biwa entered Japan from Tang period China, around A.D. 700. There are examples of this type of biwa in the Sh6s6in repository in Nara (plate 26). This type of biwa is still used in the gagaku ensemble today and called gagaku biwa or gakubiwa. Three other types of biwa instrument developed from the gagaku biwa and are practiced in Japan today. The first one is heike biwa which is used for accompaniment to musical narration of the national epic "The Tale of the Heike". The second is called moso biwa, a local type of biwa invented under the strong influence of shamisen around A.D. 1700 in K yushu Island. The third type is the kindai biwa or modem biwa, born from moso biwa which became popular throughout Japan in the 20 th century.

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 93 ( Plate 26) 3.2. Five characteristics common to the four types of biwa in Japan These four types of biwa share the following characteristics: pear shaped body, four strings, bent back neck, short neck and shallow body (plate 27). These characteristics are also common to the Chinese and Korean four-string bent neck pipa. shallow body ( Plate 27) 1J

94 3.3. Gagaku biwa Gagaku has continued to be performed in rituals in the imperial court and in many temples and shrines to the present day. When compared with the bent neck biwa in the Shosoin, we can see that its form has scarcely changed over 1300 years. It uses the same materials, expensive wood such as rosewood, red sandalwood and quince from South East Asia. This contrasts strongly with its counterpart in China, the pipa, which has changed over the centuries in terms of shape, materials and playing techniques. In China, between the Tang and Song dynasties, the number of frets started to increase and the instrument came to be played with the fingers rather than a plectrum. Further, the angle of the peg box to the neck became wider, and the body became narrower. The gagaku biwa, on the other hand, has not changed in shape since the Tang period. 1 ( Plate 28) 3.4. Heike biwa The second type of biwa in Japan is the heike biwa which is used as the

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 95 ( Plate 29) accompaniment to musical narration of the epic "Tale of the Heike". Heike biwa was played by blind musicians called biwa hoshi, which lit.erally means biwa priest. The first references to Biwa hoshi appeared around 1000 A.D. in documents and paintings. They started to chant The Tale of the Heike around 1300 A.D. The biwa used for the Heike narrative is practically the same as the gagaku biwa, but it has five frets, not four. However, since the biwa hoshi were poor, we can assume that the instruments were made from cheaper, more readily available materials which were grown locally. Heike narrative became very popular in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Some biwa hoshi became quite wealthy, and could use the expensive gagaku biwa for heike performance. The gagaku biwa comes in two sizes: the large one is about one meter long, and the smaller one is less than 90 centimetres. The heike biwa is almost the same as the smaller model. 3.5. Shamisen I have to mention to the shamisen, the three string instrument, before speaking about the third type of biwa, the moso biwa. In the sixteenth century, the shamisen was introduced to Japan from China (probably via Okinawa), and the biwa hoshi started to play this new instrument as a substitute for the heike biwa. The Shamisen is much lighter and easier to transport than

96 ( Plate 30) the heike biwa and one can play biwa music easily on it using the biwa plectrum. Furthermore, one can play melodies on the shamisen which were not easily rendered on the heike biwa. The shamisen developed its own unique performance techniques, and gradually the heike biwa came to be forgotten, except for ritual occasions. 3.6. Moso biwa In the middle of the 17 th century, an organization of blind musicians called Todo-za in Kyoto grew bigger and spread throughout most of Japan. Blind musicians on Kyiishii island were divided into two groups; those who joined the T6d6-za and those who didn't. Blind musicians of the latter group called themselves mosoor blind priests and kept their original activities. In 1674, conflict between the two groups was addressed by the court of law at the time and the moso group lost. As a result they were forbidden to use the shamisen and to perform any secular music. They were permitted only to perform sutras with the biwa. However, it was hard to live only on religious music. Consequently, they modified the biwa so that they could perform fashionable shamisen music on it. The most important modification was to make the frets higher. By adjusting the pressure which they exerted on the

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 97 strings between the frets, they worked out how to produce a variety of pitches like shamisen. Thus the third type of biwa, m6s6 biwa, was invented and a unique style of performance technique developed. The m6s6 biwa has many variant forms in different regions and with different performers. In the Satsuma region of Southern Kylishu, the biwa is very like the heike biwa, the only difference being the high frets (plate 31). However, biwa playing in this region developed a strong tremolo style, for which a very wide plectrum was used. In the northern part of Kylishu (Chikuzen region for example), a long narrow biwa is frequently used (plate 32). Its body is only about twenty centimeters wide, about the same as the width of the shamisen. ( Plate 31 ) ( Plate 32)

98 3.7. Modem biwa (kindai biwa). The biwa with high frets was invented by the moso, and developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It came to be used not only by moso but also by ordinary people for enjoyment. From this usage emerged two varieties of modem biwa: Satsuma biwa and Chikuzen biwa (plate 33 and 34) These two modem styles of biwa, the Satsuma biwa and the Chikuzen biwa, enjoyed great popularity in the first three decades of the twentieth century. Both traditions developed five-string instruments in the search for more expressiveness. After Japan's defeat in 1945, these two modem biwa styles lost their popularity. However, some contemporary composers such as Takemitsu Toru have been captivated by the Satsuma biwa and have composed some great works for it. It has also had new works composed for it in ensemble with other traditional instruments. It is acquiring a certain level of popularity as a traditional Japanese instrument. ( Plate 33) ( Plate 34 )

Transmission and Transformation of the pipa in China, Korea and Japan 99 4. Conclusion As we have seen, the gagaku biwa retains the form of the Chinese pipa of the Tang period, and the heike biwa was modelled on that. The moso biwa, on the other hand, was invented by the blind priests in Kyiishii because they were forbidden to play the shamisen. This subsequently developed as art music and led to the modem biwa. These four types of biwa illustrate the transformation and non-transformation in the history of the transmission of the biwa. [Bibliography] Chan, Sa-hun 1986 ~:tjfflll1f~)l: J ~~tl:tl' IJ ffd: Han 'guk Umak Non 'go (Korea's Music: Theory and History). Kishibe Shigeo 1936 "Biwa no engen (The origine of the P 'ip'a)", K6kogaku zasshi 26-10, 12. Included also in Todai no gakki (The musical instruments in Tang dynasty) 117-156, 1968 Tokyo: Ongaku no tomosha. 1984 Tenpy6 no hibiki (The sound of the Tenpyo era). Tokyo: Ongaku no tomosha. Liu, Dongsheng(ed.) 1994 Zhongguo yueqi tujian (lllustrated book of Chinese musical instruments). Taipei: Huayi shuju. Song, Bang-song 2000 Korean Music: historical and other aspects. Soeul: Jimoodang. Sotomura Atoru 2001 "The Tang dynasty lute as represented in Inagery from the Sh6s6-in and in Tang texts". Bulletin of the Nara National Museum 2, 3: 57-71. 2005 "The popularity of the five string pipa" Bulletin of the Nara National Museum 7: 1-24.

100 Tnanbe Hisao 1975 Biwa: sono ongaku to rekishi (Biwa: its music and history). Tokyo: Nippon Columbia. Tsuge Gin'ichi(ed.) 2003 Sirukuãdo no hibiki (η1e sound of the Si1kroad). Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha. Zhuang Yongping 2001 Pipa shouce (handbook of pipa). Shanghai: Shanghai yinyue chubanshe.

중국 한국 얼본에서의바파의전승과변형 설보라옮김 ( 서울대학교석사과정 ) 1. 서론 증 1 국과일본은많은양의문화를중국으로부터수용해왔다. 한국과일본은 i수중국으로부터받아들였던문화의고형 ( 古形 ) 을보존하는한편, 고유의새로운음악문화를독자적으로발전시키기도하였다. 본논문에서는동아시아의 4 현콕경비파 ( 曲顆똘똘 ) 를통해음악문화의어떠한면이세월과지역에따라변형되고전승되었는가를살펴보고자한다. 1 장에서는중국비파 (Pipa) 에나타나는변형의과정을악기와관련된회화뿐아니라실제악기를예로들어추적해보고, 중국류트인고대비파의어떠한요소가한 일전통비파음악에서변형없이전숭되었는가를소개하고자한다. 이를통해중국의고대음악문화가중국주변국가의음악문화에일정수준보존되어있음을밝히겠다. 2장에서는최근의연구를기초로중국에서일본으로전해진 4현곡경비파가일본에서어떤과정을통해독립적으로변형되었는가를설명하고자한다. 일본에는중국비파의고대형태를보존한것이존재하는한편, 중국비파로부터개발된일본류트인새로운형태의비와 (Biwa) 가존재하기도한다. 따라서음악문화에있어서변형과중대한변형이없는전승의두가지현상은모두일본의비와 (Biwa) 음악사에나타날수있다. 추가적으로, 본발표자는일본음악사학자이다. 필자는중국어나한국어를말

102 하거나쓰지못하는상태이고일본에서접할수있는학술논문과자료들을통해연구를수행해왔다는점을이해해주기바란다. 더구나고대악기들은수리하였거나재설계하였을가능성이었다. 악기와관련한회화의경우도실례가아닌상상에의해악기를그렸을가능성이항상존재한다. 본논문의원자료 ( 原資料 ) 에대한엄밀한평가가아직이루어지지못했음을고려해주길바란다. 2. 중국버파의역사 - 한국 일본전통과의관계 2.1. 4현곡경비파의중국유입중국은긴역사동안광대한영토를지배해왔다. 그결과음악은다양한종교를통해중국으로전해졌고, 지방의전통과결합하여다른지역으로전파되었다. 한국과일본은중국을통해직접적으로그문화와민족을접할수는없었으나, 점차적으로그접근이용이해졌다. 4현곡경비파는이러한악기중의한예이다. 4현비파는서아시아에서기원하였으며, 실크로드를통해중국에전해졌다. 최근, 일본학자아타루소토무라 (Ataru Sotomura) 는이와관련한역사적이론중에서중국 4현비파의유입이늦어도 6세기중국북조 ( 北朝, 386-581) 로부터이루어졌다는키시베 (Ki shibe 1936) 의주장을반박하였다. 또한소토무라는 추츠 도판 1) 북위 (~t 鍵 386~556 ) 마이지산석굴 도판 2) 북제 ( 北齊, 6 세기 ) 석각 ( 石刻 ) ( 보 ( 쫓빼山石짧 ) 저 178 호 4 현곡경비파를든천인스톤미술관 ( Museum fo Fine Arts (Zhuang 2001 : 도해 ). Boston. Tsuge 2002: 67).

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전승과변형 103 비파 ( 龜鉉좋풍뚫 ;)" 혹은취센비파가 5현직경비파가아닌 4현곡경비파임을주장했다 (Sotomura 2001: 65). 이어서비파가그려진고대불교회화두가지를그예로써소개하고자한다. 이자료들을살펴보면, 4현곡경비파는몸통의폭이매넓으며, 커다란채를가지고옆으로뉘여연주한다. 2.2. 수 ( 階, 581-618). 당 ( 홈, 618-907) 의비파와일본가가쿠 ( 雅樂 ) 의비와 ( 뚫똘 ) 이후수 ( 階, 581-618) 와당 ( 홈, 618-907) 왕조에비파는중국전역에서연주되었다. 수 당왕조시절중국을방문한일본사절단은비파몇점을일본으로가져왔다. 이악기들중다수가황실보고 ( 寶庫 ) 인쇼소인 ( 正創院 ) 에남아있다. 그리고어떤중요한변화가없는통일한악기들이현재일본의가가쿠 ( 雅樂 ) 에서도사용되고있다. 쇼소인의비파를살펴보면몸통은그폭이넓으며 4 7H 의현과 4개의지판이있고, 악기의상판에있는두개의초승달모양울림구멍은두개의눈과비슷하다. 이는중국고대 4현곡경비파에나타나는특정이다. 현재일본의가가쿠에서, 이비와는수평으로잡고큰채로연주한다. 이는유입초기시대의중국회화에나타나는모습과통일하다. 도판 3) 쇼소인의비파, 나라 ( 奈良. 71 O~784 )

104 도판 4 ) 궁웨투 (Gongyue tu. 왕실의 도판 5) 한시짜이예이앤투 ( 轉鐵夜훌圖, 음악 )" 의비파, 당왕조후기 ( 9 서 기 ). 구궁박한시짜이야연회 ( 夜훌會, evening party)" 물관 ( 古宮빠物館 ) (Zhuang 2001 도해의비파, 오대십국 ( 죠代 + 國, 907~960 ). (illustrations)) (Zhuang 2001 : 도해 (illustrations) ) 당왕조황실의것으로추정되는회화를통해현존하는일본황실보고 ( 寶庫 ) 의비파와통일한형태의것임을확인할수있다. 다음으로두개의예를제시한다. 도판 4의사료에는 4현곡경비파로폭이넓은몸통, 커다란채, 채보호판, 울림구멍, 수평으로잡은자세, 그리고상 ( 相, 악기목부분의지판 ) 이보인다. 도판 5에는채보호판과울림구멍이명확히보이지는않지만도판 4와통일한특정들이드러난다. 또한당왕조황실의것으로알려진회화에서는위의예들과는약간의차이가있는비와를볼수있다. 이예 ( 도판 6) 에는다른도해 ( 도판 4, 도판 5) 와의차이점이나타난다. 지판이악기의목부분뿐아니라몸통부분에도있으며악기의목부분에는 4개에서 6개의패 ( 圭샤가있다또한채로연주되지않고손가락을이용하고있다. 이는연주에사용되던지판의수가증가하기시작하였으며, 손가락으로지판을짚어연주하였음을보여준다. 또한손가락으로연주하는것을초우 ( 獨 ) 라고적는다 Ii' 퉁디앤 ( 通典 ) JJ 에의하면이와같은연주기교는이미후한 ( 後漢, 25-225) 시기에쓰인 펑수통( 風倚通 ) JJ 에기록되어있으므로 (Sotomura 2001: 67), 연주기 1 목에있는지판과몸통의패는그명칭을구분하고있다. 중국의비파는상 ( 相 ) 과핀 ( 品 ). 한국은주 ( 柱 ) 와패 ( 출샤본문의번역에서는저자가상 (Xiang) 으로명칭한것을따랐다.

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전숭과변형 105 도판 6) 궁웨투 ( Gong yue tu, 합주음악 )" 남당 ( 南훌, 937-975). (Kishibe 1984: 26) 교가처음으로변하기시작한것은당왕조말기는아닌듯하다. 2.3. 송 ( 宋 ) 과난피송왕조회화의몇몇예에서만찾을수있는이시기의비파에관한예로는둔황석굴 ( 敎熺石짧 ) 과위린 ( 需林 ) 의굴에그려진벽화가있다. 위의두벽화에퉁장하는비파는곡경으로, 몸통은폭이넓고수평으로잡아 채로연주하고있다. 즉, 수와당왕조의비파이다. 위안 ( 元, 파나그에관한도해의예는찾을수없었다. 1271-1368) 왕조의비 도판 7) 둔황저 155 호굴으 비파서하 ( 西 도판 8) 위린저 110 호굴의비파. 송 ( 宋, 夏, 1038-1 227). ( 주황 2001 : 도해 960-1 2 79 ). ( 주황 : 2001 : 도해 )

106 도판 9) 난피 ( Li u 1994: 220) 도판 10) 쿠니 C 야 음빡빽박물괜 Repository f Kunitachi College of Mus 송대 ( 宋代 ) 의비파는현재푸젠 ( 피닮훌 ) 지방나관 (naguan) 음악의난피 (nanpi) 에가장잘보존되어있다. 난피는 4개의상과 107~ 의패를갖는다. 악기의앞판은오동나무처럼비교적 가벼운목재를사용한다. 쿠니다치음악대학난피의무게는 2. 3kg이다. 쿠니다치 음악대학의난피는명왕조의비파와통일한위치에손가락을짚어소리를내지 만, 악기윤곽의독선은당왕조의비파와더유사하다. 악기를비교적수평으로 눔혀서잡는점은당왕조비파의도해와유사하다. 2.4. 한국 한국 악학궤범 ( 樂學뼈L 範,).n (1492) 에실린당비파는송왕조비파나난피와유사 하다. 당비파는 4 개의상과 8 개의패 (4 柱 8 축 h 개수를세는방법에따라 7 개의패로 보는것도가능하다 ) 를가졌다. 울림구멍과술을메는부분의형태는당과송왕 조비파모두와닮았다. 비파의뒷면은송왕조비파에서보이는것과같이가죽

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전승과변형 107 도판 11 ) r악학궤범 ( 樂學휩l 範 ) J 으 당비파 도판 12 ) 국립국악원박물관당비파 1492 ( 장 1986: 335). 띠가있으며수평으로잡았을것이다. 이도해에서는커다란나무채 ( 撥木 ) 와픽 ( 假 R 角 ) 을둘다사용하였음을알수있다 Ir 악학궤범 에따르면당악곡연주에는채 ( 撥木 ) 를, 향악곡연주에는픽 ( 假 JR 角 ) 을사용하였다. 현재의당비파는 3개의양과 7개의패를가졌지만이것이사실인지는역사적으로명확하지않다. 그러나양의모양을살펴보면국립국악원의당비파는중국의상이곡선형또는삼각형인것과는달리직사각형모양을하고있다. 다음은무사시노음악대학박물관 (Repository Musicae) 과쿠니다치음악대학박물관 (Repository Music) 의당비파이다. of Musashino Acadernia of Kunitachi College of 도판 13은한국인이제작한악기를 1977년무사시노음악대학에서구입한것이다. 국악원의것과비교하면, 상과패는그모양 제질 개수 - 총 16 7H( 제 1.2 양은떨어졌지만, 접착흔적이남아있다 ) - 에있어동일하다. 그러나상의위치는국악원의당비파와는다르다. 또한무사시노음악대악의당비파에는가죽띠가없다. 도판 14의당비파는 1980년경서울중심가의한악기상에주문 제작하여만들어진것이다. 그러나 브리지 (b ridge) 가 공명판의 string hole2 부분과가까

108 - -! 톨 도판 13> 'ë1버 파 : 197701전제작. 무사시노 도판 14> 당비파 1980년경효님썩 서제작음악대학박물관 ( Repository of Musashino 쿠니다치음악대학박물관 ( Repository of Academia Musicae) Kunitachi College of Music) 운점은뜻밖의사실로오직이예에만나타난다. 일본박물관의당비파는한국의당비파연주가사라진이후에제작된악기이 다. 사학 ( 史學 ) 적관점에서이것이연구자료로써어떠한공헌을하는지는아직 명확하지않다. 그러나원통형몸통에폭이넓은점, 각악기의앞판은오동나무 로되어있는점, 무게가가벼운점 (2kg 이약간넘는다. ) 은난피와유사하다. 2.5. 명 ( 明 ) 명왕조시대로오면서현존하는최초의역사적악기들을접하게된다. 명왕조는 300년간지속되었다. 도판 15와도판 16을살펴봤을때어느시기의악기인지를알수없지만, E-3 에보이는명비파는 17세기일본에전해진것이다. 이와같은사실을바탕으로명왕조말기에비파가발전하였음을확실히알수있다. 명비파는당과송왕조의비파와는많이다르다. 첫째로비파의모양은선대 ( 先 't) 비파보다그폭이훨씬좁다. 다음으로목에는 4개의양이, 악기몸통에는 2 악기그림이없어서어느부분인지모르겠어요. 그냥영어그대로씁니다.

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전승과변형 109 를 도판 15) 명시대비 ( 1368-1644)(Lui 1994: 216) 도판 16) 명시대 도판 17) ~I:ì 큐 明 도판 18) 명시대비 빠땀 luan 2001 : 찢징살뿌 i 으 닙때 17 파무 λμ 노음악대학 도해서 PD. 국립여흡圖박물관 ( Repository 박물관 많α)S itory of of Musashin N3t iα181 냐liversity Þcaderria M.Jsicae). of Fi ne Ms and M.Jsic). 10 개의패가있다. 채보호대는없다. 일본에전해진명비파 ( 도판 17) 에는작은 픽이있다. 다시말해서 명비파는커다란채가아니라손가락또는픽으로연주 되었다고보는것이타당할것이다. 비파는가벼운재질로만들어진다. E-4 비파 의무게는약 1kg 이다. 당비파의모습을한일본가가쿠비와 ( 雅樂좋풍똘 ) 의 무게는 5-6kg 이다. 악기의줄감개통과목의각도는매우크다. 두개의특징적인초승 달모양이악기앞면에있기는하지만, 울림구멍은매우작아악기몸통에조각 된초숭달모양은오직시각적효과를위한것으로보인다. 반면당비파와비슷 한점은 4 개의현 굽은목등이었다. string hole 부분과줄감개통의끝부분 또한그모양이유사하다. 이러한관찰결과를바탕으로명비파가당왕조시기 비파로부터발전했음을추정할수있다. 도판 18은무사시노음악대학악기박물관의일부이다. 도판 18에관에알려진것은중국비파라는사실뿐이다. 악기앞판에있는 9개의패는앞서보았던명비파보다 1 개가적다. 그러나이것또한초숭달모양의울림구멍이앞판에있고울림구멍부분 ( 높이조절 ) 의길이가꽤길

110 기때문에, 전체적인윤곽은명비파와더가까워보인다. 2.6. 청 ( 淸 ) 청왕조시기에는비파의구조에큰변화가나타나진않는다. 윤곽에있어서, 악기의생김새는명비파와매우흡사하다. 위의예들을보면청왕조의비파가명왕조비파의주요한특징을유지하고있음이확연하게드러난다.4개의양과 107M 의패가있으며몸통은폭이좁고채는없다. 울림구멍은명비파보다조금짧지만본질적으로같은형태이다. 도판 19 에서도판 21 의비파는모두명비파와는다르기때문에초승달모양의울림구멍을갖는것은하나도없다. 도판 19은근대중국비파와같기때문에줄감개통의가장윗부분은말아올려앞으로뻗은형태를하고있다. 이러한이유로도판 1 9의비파는다른것보다는최근의악기로짐작된다. 청왕조는 300년간많은변화를겪으며지속되었다. 이 3개의비파중어느것이가장오래된것인지는알수없다. 도판 19) 청왕조 ( 1616~ 도판 20) 첼 l파 ( Li u 1994 : 도판 21 ) 첼 l파 ( Li u 1994: 1912 ) 의 비파 ( Uu 1994: 218) 219) 217)

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전숭과변형 111 2.7. 일본의민신가쿠 ( 明淸樂 '; Minshingaku) 19 세기에청왕조의비파는일본에전해져중국합주음악에사용되었다. 신가 쿠 ( 淸樂 ) 혹은민신가쿠 ( 明淸樂 ) 로알려진이합주음악은매우인기가있었다. 도판 22 ) 일본민신가쿠의비와. 20 세기 ( Tanabe1975 : 64) 도판 22의민신가쿠비와는 4개의주 ( 柱 ) 와 10 7~ 의패 ( 숲샤가있다. 좁은폭의윤곽은청비파와유사하다. 이것은매우작은픽으로연주되었으며, 청비파와의차이점은픽보호대가있다는것이다. 2.8. 류큐 ( 排많, Ryükyü) 일본최남단지역에위치한과거류큐왕국 ( 현재오키나와 ) 의궁중음악인유자가쿠 (uzagaku) 에사용된비와또한청비파처럼몸통의폭이좁다. 도판 23은 4개의상과 13 7~ 의패가있다. 도판 24는 1832년공연모습을찍은사진이다. 사진속비파는 4개의상과 8개의패를가지고있다. 사진속의비파는조금둥글긴하지만청왕조의비파를연주하는오키나와청년을보여준다. 사진의연도가명확하게표시되어있는점은이연구에있어서커다란가치를갖는다.

112 도판 23> 도판 24> 도판 23. 류큐악기로구성된자가쿠를위한비와. Gallerty in Nagoya) 나고야도쿠가와미술관 ( T okugawa Art 도판 24. 자가쿠를연주하는류큐비와연주가 - 오키나와현박물관 ( Okinawa Prefectural Museum) 2.9. 오늘날중국비파마지막으로, 오늘날중국음악에사용하는비파를살펴보고자한다.20세기전반에는비파의형태가각비파음악의유파에따라달랐다. 오늘날표준악기인무사시노음악대학의비파를살펴보겠다. 악기의상단에있는조율용줄감개통은앞쪽으로감겨져있고, 몸통은폭이넓어졌다.6개의양과 24 또는 25개의패가있다. 이는청왕조시기비파와의중요한차이점들이다. 이로써한국비파와일본비와와의비교와중국비파에발생한변화에대한해석을마무리한다. 신뢰할만한물적증거를입증하고연대를결정하는일은이제시작하려한다. 본고에서는중국의비파와같은류트종인베트남의류트는고려하지않았다. 베트남류트는 4개의양과 9개의패를갖는다. 필자는동아시아전역과관련하여 4현곡경비파의역사에대한이해의필요성을느끼게되었다.

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전숭과변형 113 도판 25 ) 현대중국비파 ( 무사시노음악대학 ) 3. 일본의비와 3.1. 일본비와의유입 4현곡경비와는약 7세기경중국당 ( 홈 ) 으로부터일본에유입되었다. 이시기비와의형태는나라 ( 奈良 ) 지방의보물창고인쇼소인 ( 正創院 ) 에서그예를찾아볼수있다. 이형태의비와는오늘날가가쿠 ( 雅樂 ) 연주에서도여전히사용되고있으며, 가가쿠비와 ( 雅樂좋흙줄 ) 또는가쿠비와 ( 樂좋뚫줄 ) 라고한다. 가가쿠비와로부터발전한 3가지형태의비와는현재일본에서연주되고있다. 첫번째는헤이케비와 ( 平家뚫똘 ) 로국민서사시 헤이케이야기 ( 平家物語, The tale of the Heike)" 낭송의반주에사용되었다. 두번째는모소비와 ( 릅借좋뚫줄 ) 로샤미센 ( 三味線 ) 의영향을받아 17세기경큐슈 ( 九州 ) 섭지역에서발명되었다. 세번째형태는킨다이비와 ( 近代좋활좋 ) 또는현대비와로, 모소비와로부터파생하였으며 20세기에는일본전역에

114 도판 26 > 걸쳐인기를얻었다. 3. 2. 4가지일본비와의 5가지일반적특정이 4가지비와는일반적으로다음과같은특정을갖는다. 표주박형의몸통, 4개의현, 뒤로구부러진목, 짧은목, 얄은몸통이러한특징들은또한중국과한국의 4현곡경비파와도동일하다. 빼 도판 2 7> K

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전숭과변형 115 3.3. 가가쿠비와 (Gagaku biwa) 이제이 4가지비와를그역사적흐름에따라소개하고자한다. 가장오래된형태는가가쿠비와이다. 가가쿠는현재까지왕실 사원 신사의의식연행에서이어지고있다. 쇼소인의곡경비와와비교해보면 1300년이지나도록그형태가거의변하지않았음을알수있다. 가가쿠비와와쇼소인의비와는통일한재료를사용하였다. 그재료로는동남아시아의자단 ( 業權 모과와같은값비싼목재들이있다. 이러한점들은중국의비파의모양 재료 연주기교가약100년만에변했다는점과는매우대조적이다. 중국의당과송왕조동안에지판의수는증가하기시작했고채가아닌손가락으로연주하게되었다. 게다가목과줄감개통의각도는좀더커졌고옴통은점점좁아지기시작했다. 반면에가가쿠비와는그형태가당왕조이래로변화하지않았다. 도판 28)

116 3.4. 헤이케비와 (Heike biwa) 일본비와의두번째형태인헤이케비와 ( 平家뚫똘 ) 는서사시 헤이케이야기 ( 平家物語, The tale of the Heike)" 낭송의반주에사용되었다. 헤이케비와는비와승려라는의미의비와호시 ( 좋풍똘法師 ) 라고불린맹인음악가들에의해연주되었다. 비와호시는 11 세기경처음문헌과회화에등장하였다. 14세기경그들은헤이 도판 29) 케이야기를찬송하기시작했다. 헤이케이야기낭송을위해사용된비와는사실상지판이 4개가아닌 5개라는점을제외하면가가쿠비와와같다. 그러나비와호시들이빈곤해지면서악기는좀더싸고쉽게주변에서구할수있는재료로만들어졌을것이다. 헤이케이야기낭송은 14-15세기에매우인기가있었다. 일부비와호시가부를축적하면서헤이케이야기공연에값비싼가가쿠비와를사용할수있게되었다. 가가쿠비와는두종류의크기가있다. 큰것은약 1m 정도이며, 작은것은 90cm보다작다. 헤이케비와는대체로작은것과동일하다. 3.5. 사미센 (Sham싫en) 세번째형태의비와인모소비와에대해언급하기전에 3개의현을가진악기샤미센 ( 三味線 ) 에대해말하고자한다. 16세기샤미센은아마도중국으로부터일본의오키나와o뿌擺 ) 에소개되었던것으로보이며, 비와호시는이새로운악기를헤이케비와를대신하여연주하기시작했다. 샤미센은헤이케비와보다가벼워서들고다니기용이하며비와채 ( 撥 ) 를가지고연주할수있다. 게다가, 샤미센은

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전승과변형 117 도판 30) 헤이케비와로는연주하기어려운멜로디를연주할수있었다. 샤미센은고유의독창적인연주기교를발전시켰으며헤이케비와는의식을위한때를제외하고는점차적으로잊혀져갔다. 3.6. 모소비와 (Mõsõ biwa) 17세기중반교토맹인음악가연합인토도자 ( 當道座 ) 가점점확대되면서실질적으로일본전역에영향을미쳤다. 규슈섬의맹인음악가들은토도자에가입한집단과가입하지않은집단으로나뀐다. 후자의맹인음악가집단은그들스스로모소 ( 홉借 ) 또는맹인숭려들이라칭하며활동했다.16 74년두집단사이의분쟁은법정에서다루어졌고모소집단이패소하였다. 그결과모소집단은샤미센의사용과모든세속음악연주가금지되었고, 그들에게는오직비와로경전을연주하는것만이허락되었다. 그러나종교음악만으로는생계유지가어려웠기때문에, 그들은당시유행하던샤미센음악을연주할수있도록비와를변형하였다. 이와같은변형중가장중요한것은지판을높인것이다. 지판과지판사이의현에가해지는압력을조정함으로써, 샤미센과같은다양한음높이를만들어내는방법을터득하였다. 그결과세번째형태의비와인모소비와가발명되었고독창적양식의연주기법이발전하였다. 모소비와는지역과연주자에따라매우다양한형태를갖는다. 큐슈납부의사

118 도판 3 1) 도판 32 ) 츠마 ( 魔摩 ) 지방의비와는지판이더높은것을제외하면헤이케비와와매우유사 하다. 그러나이지방에서연주하는비와는폭이매우넓은채를사용해강한트 레몰로스타일을발전시켰다. 3.7. 근대비와 ( 近代좋활훌 kindai biwa) 높은지판을가진비와는모소에의해생겨나 18-19세기에발전하였다. 이는단지모소뿐만아니라일반인들의향락을위해서도사용되었다. 이로부터두종류의근대비와인사츠마비와 ( 鐘摩좋흙줄 ) 와치구젠비와 ( 짧前좋풍뚫 ) 가발생하였다. 이두가지근대양식의비와는 20세기초반 30년동안에큰인기를얻었다. 이두비파는모두좀더풍부한표현을위해 5현비파로발전하였다. 1945년일본의패전이후, 이두가지양식의근대비와는그인기를잃었다. 그러나타케미츠토루 (Takemitsu Tõru) 와같은몇몇현대작곡가들은사츠마비와에매료되어사츠마비와를위한훌륭한작품들을작곡하였다. 또한사츠마비와를위해다른전통악기들과의합주를위한새로운작품들도작곡하였다. 사츠마비와는전통일본악기로서일정수준의인기를얻었다.

중국 한국 일본에서의비파의전숭과변형 119 도판 33) 도판 34) 4. 결론 이상살펴본바처럼, 가가쿠비와 ( 雅樂좋뚫줄 ) 는당대중국비파의형태를유지하였고, 이후헤이케비와 ( 平家똘똘 ) 가퉁장하였다. 반면모소비와 ( 릅增좋똘졸 ) 는큐슈지방의맹인승려들의샤미센 ( 三味線 Shamisen) 연주를금지했기때문에생겨나게되었다. 이후이것이예술음악으로발전하면서현대비와로변형되었다. 이 4가지종류의비와는비와전승의역사에있어서그변형과보존의예증 ( 例證 ) 이라할수있다.