이화음악논집 2016 가을 20 집 3 호 이화여자대학교음악연구소
Journal of Ewha Music Research Institute Autumn 2016 Volume 20 Number 3 Editor-in-Chief Hyun Kyung Chae Editorial Board Euil Mi Park Jae Sung Park Hye Seung Shin Mi Kyung Lee Sung Ki Cho Yu Siu Wah Chun-Zen HUANG Heather A. Willoughby Alison Tokita Jennifer Ward Judy Tsou
이화음악논집 2016 가을 20 집 3 호 편집위원장 채현경이화여자대학교음악연구소장 편집위원 박을미부산대학교박재성한양대학교신혜승이화여자대학교이미경전남대학교조성기공주대학교류쓰와홍콩중문대학교황쥔런국립대만사범대학헤더윌로비이화여자대학교앨리슨토키타교토시립예술대학제니퍼워드 RISM 편집위원및 IAML 웹페이지편집위원쥬디초우워싱턴대학교, JAMS 및 Women and Music 편집위원
Journal of Ewha Music Research Institute Autumn 2016 Volume 20 Number 3 Contents Kyung-young Chung Voce si amara, Monteverdi s Noise: A case of Act 1, Scene 3 from L incoronatione di Poppea(1642) 1 Young Kim A Comparative Analysis of Fantasias between W. F. Bach & C. P. E. Bach 35 Seungji Ryu Dalcroze s Musical Grammar and Pedagogical Ideas through the Analysis of His Dix Miniatures pour Jeunes Pianistes 69 Heather A. Willoughby A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan: Issues of Identity in New York City s 1990s Folk Scenes 115 Peter Broadwell Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 155
이화음악논집 2016 가을 20 집 3 호 목차 정경영 Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 : 포페아의대관 (L incoronatione di Poppea, 1642) 의 1 막 3 장을중심으로 1 김영 W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 35 유승지 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 69 Heather A. Willoughby A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan: Issues of Identity in New York City s 1990s Folk Scenes 115 Peter Broadwell Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 155
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 : 포페아의대관 (L incoronatione di Poppea, 1642) 의 1 막 3 장을중심으로 *1) 정경영 목차 Ⅰ. 들어가는말 Ⅱ. 가사와수사적전략 Ⅲ. 음악의전체적윤곽 1. 마디 255-309 (1-25행) 2. 마디 310-393 (26-44행) 3. 마디 394-433 (45-68행) Ⅳ. 소음으로서의불협화음 Ⅴ. 나가는말참고문헌 Abstract * 이논문은 2015년대한민국교육부와한국연구재단의지원을받아수행된연구임. (NRF-2015S1A5B8037080) - 논문접수일 (7월 30일 ), 심사일 (8월 30일 ), 게재확정일 (9월 12일 )
2 이화음악논집 개요 몬테베르디의오페라 포페아 의 1막 3장에는예비없는불협화음이 3번등장한다. 이불협화음들은단순한음악적사건이라기보다는오페라의주제인주변과중심의문제를은유한다. 그러한의미에서이불협화음들은상황적이고상대적특성을갖는소리인 소음 으로이해할수있으며, 이작품에서등장하는이특별한 소음 은이오페라의극적내러티브를압축적으로요약하고있을뿐아니라당대의사회적, 역사적, 문화적문맥을동시에드러낸다.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 3 Ⅰ. 들어가는말 몬테베르디 (Claudio Monteverdi, 1567-1643) 의 포페아의대관 (L Incoronatione di Poppea, 1642, 이하 포페아 ) 의 1막 3장은이오페라의주인공인네로와포페아가등장하는첫장면이다. 이장면은두인물사이의심리적긴장을음악으로매혹적으로표현하고있다는점외에도수사학적대본과이에적합한음악적표현사이의조화, 극전체를추동하는시발점으로도매우중요한장면이다. 부제넬로 (Giovanni Francesco Busenello, 1598-1659) 의원래대본을적극적으로개작해가며음악을붙인몬테베르디는이장면의핵심을결정적순간에등장하는절묘한불협화음으로함축적으로표현해내고있다. 이글은바로이불협화음에주목하고있다. 왜냐하면이장면에서사용되는절묘한불협화음은단순히당대의음악적관습에서벗어나는음이라거나듣기싫은음향단위라고설명되는것이상이기때문이다. 몬테베르디가사용하는불협화음은음악적문맥안에서음향적효과만을갖는것이아니라수사학적의미와그것을넘어서는심리적갈등, 젠더를포함한두주인공사이의권력관계를모두함축한다. 여기서불협화음은절대적미학의기준으로판단되는것이라기보다는음악적, 극적문맥안에서규정될뿐아니라사회적맥락안에서권력을가진것의 나머지 로, 혹은제도나규범에대한잠재적 위협 으로이해된다는점에서 소음 이라고불리는것이더적절하다. 오늘날소리연구 (sound studies) 1) 분야에서는소음이규정 (define) 되는것이아니라사회적, 역사적, 문화적, 생태적문맥에서구성 (construct) 된다는점에주목한다. 즉소음은물리적구성물이나특성에의해객관적, 절대 1) 소리연구, 특히소음연구의예는매우다양하다. 다양한연구를개괄해주는좋은문헌은 David Novak, Matt Sakakeeny(ed.), Keywords in Sound, (Durham and London: Duke University, 2015) 이고이중에서도특히 125-138을참고할수있다.
4 이화음악논집 적으로규정되는것이아니라앞서말한문맥안에서나머지의것으로타자화된것임을주장하고있다. 소음에대한이러한정의는몬테베르디가 포페아 의 1막 3장에서사용한불협화음의복합적함의를잘조망해줄수있는틀을제공한다. 몬테베르디가음악적으로재창조하고있는포페아라는인물은이장면에서단순히불협화음을사용하여노래를하고있는것이아니라이를수사학적으로, 정치적으로사용하고있다. 네로와의불확실한관계, 즉 나머지 로서의자신의처지, 소음 으로서의처지를불협화음으로부각시키고, 그소음을이용하여네로를유혹하며, 자신에대한사랑을확인하는도구로사용하고, 더나아가서그것을통해자신이중심의자리로옮겨가고자하는정치적방편으로이용하고있는것이다. 그러므로몬테베르디의불협화음은단순한불협화음이라기보다는체계와전통, 중심을뒤흔드는나머지의, 그리고주변의소리, 즉소음이다. 이글에서는우선 1막 3장의가사를통해이장면의수사적측면을살펴보고, 이러한수사적측면을음악적상징으로번역해내는몬테베르디의전략을살펴본후, 문제의불협화음을통해이불협화음이어떻게앞서언급한소음으로기능하는지를살피게될것이다. Ⅱ. 가사와수사적전략 몬테베르디의오페라 포페아 의 1막 3장은하루밤을같이지낸네로와포페아가헤어지는장면이다. 이장면은등장인물들의심리상태를탁월하게묘사하고있다. 사회적으로허락되지않는사랑을나눈두사람사이의긴장과갈등, 유혹과책임회피, 설득과수긍의과정이고스란히가사와음악으로그려지고있다. 다음은이장면의가사와그번역이다.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 5 Poppea 포페아 1 Signor, deh non partire, 그대, 떠나지말아요 2 Sostien che queste braccia 내팔로하여금 3 Ti circondino il collo, 그대의목을감싸게해줘요 4 Come le tue bellezze 그대의아름다움이 5 Circondano il cor mio. 내마음을감싸안은것처럼. Nerone 네로 6 Poppea, lascia ch io parta. 포페아, 떠나게해주오. Poppea 포페아 7 Non Partir, Signor, deh non partire. 떠나지말아요, 아, 떠나지말아요. 8 Appena spunta l alba, e tu che sie 이제막날이밝았고, 당신은 9 L incarnato mio sole, 인간의모습을한나의태양이에요. 10 La mia palpabil luce, 만질수있는나의빛이에요. 11 E l amoroso dì della mia vita, 그리고내삶의사랑이에요. 12 Vuoi sì repente far dda m partita? 왜나를떠나려고하나요? 13 Deh non dir di partier, 아, 나를떠난다고말하지말아요, 14 Che di voce sì amara à un solo accento, 그끔찍한말소리앞에서 15 Ahi perir, ahi spirar quest alma io sento. 아, 내영혼이소멸되는것같단말 이에요. Nerone 네로 16 La nobiltà de nascimenti tuoi 그대가귀한가문에서태어났다는것은 17 Non permette che Roma 로마가 18 Sappia che siamo uniti, 우리가함께한다는것을알아서는 안된다는것이오. 19 In sin ch Ottavia... 옥타비아가있는한... Poppea 포페아 20 In sin che... 있는한... Nerone 네로 21...om som ch Ottavia non rimane esclusa... 옥타비아가아직추방되지않고있는한...
6 이화음악논집 Poppea 포페아 22 Non rimane... 추방되지않는한... Nerone 네로 23...in sin ch Ottavia non rimane esclusa 옥타비아가아직추방되지않는한 24 Dal repudio da me. 나와이혼하여... Poppea 포페아 25 Vanne, vanne ben mio 가요, 가세요, 내사랑하는이여 Sinfonia 신포니아 Nerone 네로 26 In un sospir che vien 올라오는한숨속에 27 Dal profondo del sen 나의마음저밑바닥으로부터 28 Includo un bacio, o cara, de un a dio: 키스를보내오, 나의사랑, 안녕. 29 Ci rivedrem ben tosto, idolo mio. 우리는곧다시만날것이오, 나의 우상. Sinfonia 신포니아 Poppea 포페아 30 Signor, sempre mi vedi, 그대, 그대는언제나나를바라보지요. 31 Anzi mai non mi vedi, 그러나그대는결코나를보지않아요. 32 Perché s è ver, che nel tuo cor io sia 내가당신의마음속에있다는것이 사실이라면 33 Entro al tuo sen celata, 당신의가슴속에숨어있다면 34 Non posso da tuoi lumi esser mirata. 나는당신의눈에보이질않아요. Nerone 네로 35 Adorati miei rai, 내사랑하는눈동자여 36 Deh restatevi omai 아, 이제는그만해요! 37 Rimanti, ò mia Poppea, 당신은내게남아있을것이오, 오 나의포페아
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 7 38 Cor, vezzo, e luce mia... 나의심장, 나의사랑, 나의빛... Poppea 포페아 39 Deh non dir 아, 말하지말아요, 40 Di partir, 떠나간다고 41 Che di voce sì amara à un solo accento, 그끔찍한말소리앞에서 42 Ahi perir, ahi spirar quest alma sento. 아, 내영혼이소멸되는것같단말 이에요. Nerone 네로 43 Non temer, tu stai meco a tutte l ore 두려워마시오, 그대는항상나와함 께있을것이오. 44 Splendor negl occhi, e deità nel core. 내눈의광채, 내마음의여신이여. Poppea 포페아 45 Tornerai? 돌아올거죠? Nerone 네로 46 Se ben io vò 내가떠난다고해도 47 Pur texo stò 나는여전히그대와함께있을것이오. Poppea 포페아 48 Tornerai? 돌아올거죠? Nerone 네로 49 Il cor dalle tue stelle 나의마음은결코떠나지않을것이오 50 mai non si disvelle. 당신의눈으로부터. Poppea 포페아 51 Tronerai? 돌아올거죠? Nerone 네로 52 Io non posso da te viver disgiunto 나는당신과떨어져서살수없소 53 Se non si smembra la unità del punto. 아주조금도벌려놓을수없소.
8 이화음악논집 Poppea 포페아 54 Tornerai? 돌아올거죠? Nerone 네로 55 Tornerò 돌아오겠소 Poppea 포페아 56 Quando? 언제요? Nerone 네로 57 Ben tosto! 곧! Poppea 포페아 58 Ben tosto. 곧. 59 Me l prometti? 약속하는거죠? Nerone 네로 60 Te l giuro! 맹세하오. Poppea 포페아 61 E e l osserverai? 약속을지킬거죠? Nerone 네로 62 E s a te non verrò, tu à me verrai. 내가오지않는다면당신이나에게 오도록하시오. Poppea 포페아 63 A dio 안녕 Nerone 네로 64 A dio 안녕히 Poppea 포페아 65 Nerone, Nerone addio... 네로, 네로, 안녕
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 9 Nerone 네로 66 Poppea, Poppea, addio... 포페아, 포페아, 안녕히 Poppea 포페아 67 Addio, Nerone, addio. 안녕, 네로, 안녕. Nerone 네로 68 Addio, Poppea, ben mio. 안녕히, 포페아, 내사랑. 가사전체의극적동력은포페아가제공하고있지만내러티브를진행시키는주체는네로이다. 포페아는가사를통해일관되게자기주장을펼치고있다. 그주장은 떠나지말아요, 돌아와요 이다. 이간단한주장이 68행이나되는가사로이어질수있는까닭은포페아의이러한주장에대한네로의태도가변하고있기때문이다. 그러므로전체가사는네로의변하는입장에따라나누어생각해볼수있다. 우선 1-15행에서네로의입장은 떠나게해주오 (6행) 라는말로압축될수있다. 그렇다면 16-24행에서네로는떠나야만하는이유를들어설득하고있다. 그이유는아직 옥타비아가추방되지않았기 (21행) 때문이다. 옥타비아는네로의현재부인이고, 그러므로네로와포페아를둘러싸고있는제도이고규범이다. 네로의이말속에숨어있는인식은아직포페아는중심이아니라주변이며, 중심의나머지라는사실이다. 비록포페아가귀한가문에서태어났더라도, 혹은바로그귀한가문에태어났기때문에 우리가함께한다는것을알아서는안된다 (18 행 ) 는것이고, 중심을, 제도를, 규범을흔들면안된다는것이다. 너는아직주변이기때문이다 라는것이네로의논증이다. 일견네로의논증에설득된것처럼보이는 25행의포페아의언급은사실포페아의협박에가깝다. 갈테면아주가버리세요! 당연히네로는본격적으로포페아를설득하기시작한다. 이것이 26-29행을부르는네로의첫번째노래 ( 아리아 ) 이다. 이노래에서거듭강조되는가사는
10 이화음악논집 한숨 (sospiro) 이다. 나도당신과헤어지기쉽지않다, 그러니한숨이나온다는것이다. 그러나물론다시만나겠지만 (29행), 지금은헤어져야한다 (28행) 는사실을분명히한다. 이에대한포페아의불평 (30-34행) 은간접적이지만한편으로는 돌아오라 는일관된메시지를반복하고있다. 마음속에있다고말하는것은의미가없다, 직접와서나를보는것이아닌것은, 실은보는것이아니다 라는것이포페아가부르는노래의핵심이다. 흥미로운것은이부분에서포페아가 보는것 을주제로삼은것, 그리고 나는당신의빛의목표가될수없어요 (Non posso da tuio lumi esser mirata) 라고노래하는 (34행) 것이다. 의역하자면 나는당신의눈에보이지않아요 라는의미를가진이부분에서포페아는네로의 눈 을 빛 으로묘사한다. 이부분이흥미로운이유는그다음부분 (35-38행) 에서즉각네로가이표현을따라하기때문이다. 35행에서네로는갑자기포페아를 나의사랑스런눈 (adorati miei rai) 으로묘사하기시작하고 38행에서는포페아를 나의심장, 자기, 나의빛 (cor, vezzo, e luce mia) 이라고부른다. 포페아의주제 ( 눈으로보는것 ) 와그의표현 ( 빛 ) 을따라한다는것은이미대화의주도권이포페아에게넘어왔음을암시한다. 이렇게되자포페아는다시 39-42행에서이노래의핵심적주장인 13-15행을반복하고있다. 네로의 43-44행은 35-38행의반복으로여전히포페아를 눈 으로, 광채 로표현하고있다. 그다음부분은이미대화의주도권을잡은포페아가네로를통해서다시돌아올것을다짐받는부분이다. 포페아는이부분에서 돌아올거죠? (Tornerai?) 라는말을네번반복한다.(45, 48, 51, 54행 ) 네번째질문에서야비로소만족할만한대답인 돌아오겠소 (Tornerò, 55행 ) 라는답변을들은포페아는즉각 언제 라고묻고, 곧 이라는답을듣는다. 그제야포페아는 안녕 이라는말로작별을고하고네로역시같은말로답한다.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 11 포페아 의 1막 3장의가사는포페아가자신의뜻을관철하는내용으로, 네로가포페아의전략에넘어가는내러티브로되어있다. 이내러티브는대화의주도권을은밀한방식으로드러내고있는데, 처음에는두주인공의입장이첨예하게부딪히다가서로의마음을노래형식으로 ( 즉, 가사의측면으로보자면각운을가진정형화된시로 ) 표현한후, 포페아의어휘를네로가따라하는방식으로전개된다. 그과정에서포페아와네로의대화는자신의주장을가감없이표현하는부분, 상대방을존중해주면서자신의마음을은유적으로표현하는부분, 주제와어휘가동화되는부분, 상대방의의도를적극적으로수용하는부분으로나누어진다. 그리고인물에대한이러한놀라운묘사는몬테베르디의음악을만나서, 보다입체적방식으로그려진다. 음악을살펴보자. Ⅲ. 음악의전체적윤곽 몬테베르디의음악은가사와가사를읽어내는그의독법에따라크게세부분으로나누어진다. 그세부분은마디 255-309, 310-393, 394-433이다. 1. 마디 255-309(1-25행 ) 첫부분의음악적목표는포페아와네로의대표적조성 ( 각각 D와 F) 을드러내고, 그조성을중심으로그둘사이의숨겨진갈등을표현하는것이다. 1-15행은떠나려는네로와떠나지말라고붙잡는포페아의갈등이나타난다. 네로는 떠나게해주오 (6행) 라고단한번말하고있지만, 포페아는 1-5행, 7-15행을통하여떠나지말라고길게노래하고있다. 하지만떠나려는네로와붙잡으려고하는포페아의갈등은각기다른중심음과헥사코드의사용을통해음악으로잘드러난다. 1-5행을부르는
12 이화음악논집 포페아의노래를통해서우리는포페아의노래 ( 혹은그의심정 ) 가 d음을중심으로하고있음을알수있다. 마디 255-263은 d 도리안음계안에서종지음 (d) 에서낭송음 (a) 까지의윤곽을따라노래하는것을알수있다 ( 악보 1). < 악보 1> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 255-263. 그러나이에답하는네로의 ( 떠나게해달라는 ) 노래는플랫을포함하는 F조로끝난다. 이에반응하는 ( 보낼수없다는 ) 포페아의노래는즉각 F# 음을반주에포함시킨다. ( 이때반주의화음은당연히 D 장3화음의제1전위를암시한다.) 이 F# 음은즉각적으로는바로앞에서끝난네로의노래 (F음으로끝나는 ) 에대한강한대조를만들어내지만, 널리보자면, d 도리안을암시했던포페아자신의처음노래의헥사코드와대조를이루기도한다. 그러므로 F# 을포함하는두마디 ( 마디 267-268) 는네로와의감정대립과포페아자신의감정변화를동시에획득한다.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 13 < 악보 2> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 264-275. 조성과헥사코드의이러한독법은그다음마디에의해서더강화된다. 마디 269에서포페아는즉시 d 단3화음으로돌아와마디 268과대조를이룬다. 이러한대조는가사 ( 혹은가사를통해드러나는화자의
14 이화음악논집 감정 ) 를잘드러낸다. f# 을포함하는마디 267-268의음악은 7행의가사를노래하는데, 이가사는떠나게해달라는네로의말에대한즉각적인부정적반응 떠나지말아요 라는것이다. 그러나그다음에등장하는마디 269-275의가사인행 8-11은부정적언술이아니라상대방에대한자신의마음을드러내어떠나려는네로를잡으려는전략을취한다. 네로를자신의태양, 빛, 생명의사랑으로비유하는이대목의음악은가사의수사학적반복을그대로반영하고있다. 그리고이때포페아는네로의조성인 f조에서노래를마치고있다 ( 악보 2). 그러나그다음순간, 다시포페아는 왜나를떠나려고하나요 (12 행 ) 라고노래하면서흥분된마음상태를정돈되지않은조성적관계와연속적인계류음으로표현하고결국은자신의조성인 d로되돌아간다. < 악보 3> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 276-287. 16-24행은네로와포페아의갈등이무엇인지, 포페아의근심의현실적원인이무엇인지를드러내주는한편, 오페라전체의극적동력을
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 15 드러내는부분이다. 그것은사랑하는관계에이미자리잡고있는또다른사람, 네로의부인옥타비아의존재이다. 이부분의음악적역할은일종의경과구에가까운모습을보이고있다. 전체장면이 d 종지음을중심으로이루어져있고관련된조성을 F, a(a), 그리고이와관계된조성인 C라고한다면, 이부분의음악적역할은 d로시작된노래 ( 마디 288) 를 5도순환을통해 (F-C-G-D-A) 중심음으로이동하는것이고바로이조성위에서포페아의짧은 3박자의응답 ( 마디 304-309) 이등장하고뒤이어네로의 A 중심의노래와포페아의 C 중심의노래가불려진다. 채이프 (Eric Chafe, 1946- ) 는이부분의음악에서포페아의응답이중요하다고여긴다. 2) 특히반복되는 20행 ( In sin che... ) 은선율적으로 e에서 Bb까지감5도를만들어냄으로써 ( 마디 294-295) 자연스럽게다음순간에네로가 a음을부르도록유도하고있다는것이다. < 악보 4> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 294-297. 다음에등장하는 3박자의짧은아리아같은포페아의노래는반복되는선율속에 a 중심음을강조하고 (V6-I) 마지막세마디를통해 I-iv-V-i 진행을통해 a 중심음을확립한다. 2) Eric Chafe, Monteverdi s Tonal Language (New York: Schirmer Books, 1992), 353.
16 이화음악논집 2. 마디 310-393 (26-44행) 이부분은두주인공이본격적으로 노래 를부르는부분이다. 상대방을설득하고반론하는수사를최고조로표현하는결과가아리아와같은형식으로나타난다. 당연히다양한음악적장치, 즉수사학적기교가등장한다. 중심조성을통해드러나는갈등은이부분에서도역시음악적핵심을이룬다. 짧은신포니아후에등장하는네로의짧은노래 (26-29행) 에는여러가지음악적장치가포함되어있다. 우선마드리갈식의가사그리기가나타난다. 앞서언급한것처럼이노래에서반복되며강조되는가사는 한숨 (sospiro) 이다. 이단어는이노래의첫부분 ( 마디 320-329) 에서한숨을쉬는듯한쉼표로거듭강조된다. 3) 마디 321부터거의매마디마다쉼표가반복될뿐아니라마디 321과 324에서는 한숨 이라는단어사이에쉼표가자리잡고있어서이쉼표가이단어를묘사하는음악적장치임을놓치지않게하고있다. 3) 채이프역시이러한점에주목하고있다. Eric Chafe, Monteverdi s Tonal Language, p. 354.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 17 < 악보 5> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 320-339. 마음속깊은곳에서 (dal profondo del cor) 이라는가사역시이러한가사그리기를보여준다. 마디 323에서 profondo 라는단어의 -do 음절은이부분의가장깊은 ( 낮은 ) 음인 d에다다르고있다. 이가사가반복되는마디 327에서는이단어를뒷받침하는선율이완전 5도높은곳에서시작되었지만마찬가지의선율윤곽을따라같은음절에서 5도아래로도약하행하고있다. 이부분 ( 마디 320-329) 의또다른음악적장치는반복되는베이스이다. 이반복은마디 320-323( 첫음 ) 과마디 324-327을통해나타난다. 물론마디 321과 325의베이스두번째음이각각 c와 e로다르지만
18 이화음악논집 기본적으로같은베이스를반복하고베이스가반복될때선율은 3도위에서시작되고음역을바꿔노래하고있다. 이부분에서또귀를사로잡는흥미로운장치는기본박이바뀌어음악이빨라진후선율과베이스를통해서등장하는동형진행이다. 마디 331의후반부, 선율에서등장하는 3화음의펼친하행진행 e-c-a는다음마디 ( 마디 332) 에서 d-b-g# 으로이어지고이진행은다시다음마디 ( 마디 333) 에서 a-f#-d로이어진다. 이하행하는펼침 3화음은그다음순간에베이스 ( 마디 333 후반부 ) 를통해서 d-b-g로이어진후마디 334 의선율에서 g-e-c, 그리고베이스에서 c-a-f로연결된다. 이부분의가사가 곧다시만날것이요 (si rivedrem bentosto) 라는것을고려해보면, 네로의이말은진실성이의심스럽다. 왜냐하면, 이장면을통해서네로의의지를상징하는 F조성이나포페아의요구에응답하는 D조성에도달하지않고계속방황하기때문이다. 실제로행 26-29를통해서부르는네로의노래는이때까지레치타티보양식으로불리던노래에비하면다소간과장되어있다. 결국도달하게되는 A조성은일견포페아의조성인 D에근접한듯보이지만여전히딸림음에머물러있어, 네로의말이아직도확정적이지않음을, 포페아의요구에확실한답을주지않고있음을암시한다. 네로의속마음은이자리를빨리떠나는것이고몬테베르디가붙인음악에따르면그의말투는허세에가깝다. 이러한네로의노래에답하는포페아의노래역시매우흥미롭다. 포페아의기본전략은네로를따라노래하는것이다. 보라.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 19 < 악보 6> 몬테베르디, 포페아 342-351. 포페아는네로가그랬던것처럼우선마드리갈에서사용될법한가사그리기를사용한다. sempre ( 늘 ) 이라는단어를계속 ( 늘 ) 반복하는것, 그리고그단어에다음절적가사붙이기를하는것이그렇다. 또한네로의노래에서처럼포페아는반복되는베이스위에서노래하고있다. 마디 343-348의베이스는마디 349-354에서그대로반복되고있다. 더욱흥미로운것은포페아의이노래는 C조성에서끝난다는사실이다. 마치네로가포페아의조성인 D조의딸림조에서자기노래를마쳤던것처럼, 포페아는자신의노래를네로의조성인 F조의딸림조에서마치고있는것이다. 네로의노래가허세였다면포페아의노래는그가사처럼 ( 당신은늘나를본다고하지만실은보고있지않아요 ) 네로의말을비꼬고있는것이라고할만하다. 이어지는네로의노래 ( 행 35-38) 는여전히 D가아닌이조성의딸림조성인 A에머물고있다. 이때베이스는반음하행하여프리지안종지를만들고있다. 그다음에등장하는포페아의노래 ( 행 39-42) 는앞서
20 이화음악논집 등장했던행 13-15와동일한부분이다. 음악적으로살펴본다면 그끔찍한말소리 라는가사를표현하던단9도의예리한불협화음 ( 마디 281) 이마디 375에서는장9도가되었다. 그후에등장하는일련의계류음들도다소간완화되었는데예컨대 Ahi 라는감탄사에붙어있던완전4도와증4도음향 ( 마디 283) 은이제장3도와단7도로다소간부드러워졌고앞부분에서등장하던연속적 7-6 진행은이제 6-5로바뀌어불협화음적성격이거의사라지고대신마디 378의 3박에서앞부분에서등장하지않았던단7도음정이한번등장한다. 행 39-42에서노래하는포페아는여전히불협화음을쓰지만전체적으로행 13-15를노래할때보다는부드러운방식으로불협화음을사용하는것을알수있다. < 악보 7> 몬테베르디, 포페아 374-380. 43행과 44행은네로의노래인데, 각행이다른방식으로불린다. 두려워마시오, 그대는항상나와함께있을것이오 라고부르는 43행 ( 마디 381-386) 은 3박으로아리아와유사한형태로부른다. 그러나 내눈의광채, 내마음의여신이여 라고노래하는 44행 ( 마디 387-393) 은 2박으로마드리갈식의가사그리기를사용하여부른다. 특히 광채 (splendor) 라는단어를부를때는이장의어떤부분보다도화려한다음절적가사붙이기를사용한다.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 21 43-44행을부르는네로의노래에서주목할만한점은마침내네로가 44행의화려한노래를통해서포페아의조성인 D에도착한다는것이고, 이는마디 386의 A조성에대한응답처럼, 그러니까 두려워마시오, 그대는항상나와함께있을것이오 라는말에대한확고한음악적응답처럼들린다. < 악보 8> 몬테베르디, 포페아 381-393.
22 이화음악논집 3. 마디 394-433 (45-68행) 45-68행은이막의결론부분이다. 네로는포페아에게이미심리적으로종속되었고포페아가원하는것을다수락한다. 지금까지는이러한과정이네로가자신의조성 (F) 를포기하고포페아의조성 (D) 으로귀속되는것으로드러났다면, 이마지막부분에서는더나아가네로가포페아의음형을따라하는것으로나타난다. 그러나몬테베르디의음악이흥미로운것은이러한포페아음형따라하기가바로나타나지는않는다는것이다. 포페아가거듭하여똑같은말, 돌아올거죠? (Tornerai) 를 3번반복하는동안네로는기대되는 돌아오겠다 는말대신다른대답을한다. 예컨대 49-50행에서처럼 나의마음은결코떠나지않을것이요당신의눈으로부터 (Il cor dalle tue stelle / mai non si disvelle) 라고하거나 52-53행에서처럼 나는당신과떨어져서살수없소, 아주조금도벌려놓을수없소 (Io non posso da te viver disgiunto/ Se non is smembra la unità del punto) 라고노래한다. 이두대답은모두포페아가바라는답이아니다. 포페아가바라는유일한답은 돌아오겠다 는답이고그러므로그의세번째물음은보다위협적이다. < 악보 9> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 401. 이순간포페아는또다시 듣기싫은 소리를사용한다. 이때반주에서기대되는화음은 D 장3화음이고, 선율에서예비없이먼저나오는음은 B 이므로이음은날카로운불협화음이된다. 이러한위협후에네로는또다시 43-44행에서사용했던것과비슷한전략, 즉각행을
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 23 각기다른방식으로노래하고앞행을 A에서마치고뒷행을 D에서마치는전략을사용하여노래한다. 포페아가원하는대답은그다음에야들을수있다. 네번째똑같은질문앞에서네로는드디어같은가사를같은리듬으로노래한다. < 악보 10> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 412-413. 그다음부분에서네로는완전히포페아에게종속되어있으며, 네로의모든노래는포페아의조성안에서, 포페아의노래선율을따라가고있다. < 악보 11> 몬테베르디, 포페아 마디 423-433.
24 이화음악논집 위의예에서볼수있듯포페아와네로는거의동일한음형을노래하고있고그노래는항상포페아가먼저노래하면네로가받는식으로구성되어있다. 화성적측면에서도포페아가먼저 E 장3화음위에서노래하자 ( 마디 423, 425-426) 네로역시그화성안에서답하고있으며 ( 마디 424, 427-428), 마지막부분에서포페아가 A(D 조성의딸림화음 ) 에서노래를마치면 ( 마디 429-430), 네로는완전한포페아의조성인 D 로이장면을마무리짓는다 ( 마디 431-433). 지금까지살펴본것처럼몬테베르디는이오페라의 1막 3장에서포페아와네로사이의세밀한심리적관계, 정치적관계를정교한음악으로그려내고있다. 그러나그중에서도이장면의핵심을가장잘드러내는음악적부분은불협화음이등장하는부분이다. 그불협화음은이극의맥락안에서, 그리고가사를통해서일종의 소음 으로이해되고, 이러한이해를통해서바라본이오페라의 1막 3장은 소음 이라는주제로가장잘요약될수있다. 그리고몬테베르디는이러한점을음악으로잘들려주고있다. 이제이오페라의 소음 에귀기울여보자. Ⅳ. 소음으로서의불협화음 포페아 의 1막 3장에서경과음이나보조음과같이당대의음악이론규칙에의거하거나예비음을가지는계류음을제외한불협화음은딱세번등장한다. 마디 281과마디 375, 그리고마디 401에등장하는예비없는불협화음들이그것이다. 17세기전반기, 예비없는불협화음은그자체로도흥미로운관심거리이지만, 몬테베르디의경우제2작법과관련하여음악이론사상의 소음 을만들었던것이바로 < 무정한아마릴리 >(Cruda Amarili) 에서사용한예비없는불협화음이었다는것을생각해보면, 이불협화음을더주
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 25 목해볼필요가있다. 마디 281과 375의불협화음은직접적으로는가사와관계가있다. 이두부분에서포페아는네로가말한 떠나게해주오, 떠나야만하오 라는말에대답하면서그말을 그끔찍한말소리 라고표현하고있다. 그러니까마디 281과 375에서사용되는불협화음은일차적으로가사의내용을몬테베르디가음악적으로번역한것이라고할수있다. 포페아가네로의말을 그끔찍한말소리, 즉 소음 이라고표현한이유는당연히네로의목소리자체때문이아니라그말이갖는의미때문이다. 그리고그의미는현재포페아가처한상황과관련이있다. 네로의 떠난다 는말은이오페라안에서다시옥타비아에게로돌아간다는의미, 그러므로원래네로가가지고있던사회적질서, 관습, 제도안으로돌아간다는의미, 그리고그럼으로써다시중심의자리로간다는의미를갖는다. 반대로포페아에게있어이말의의미는다시주변인이된다는의미이다. 네로와의하룻밤을통해중심의자리를꿈꾸던포페아에게네로의 떠난다 는말은다시타자화된다는의미와다름없는것이다. 이렇게생각해보면, 그끔찍한말소리 를소음으로 번역 하고있는몬테베르디의선택역시단순히가사를마드리갈식으로묘사하는수준을넘어서는의미를갖고있다. 아르투지와몬테베르디간의논쟁의핵심을상기해요약해보자면그것은 < 무정한아마릴리 > 에등장하는 예비없는불협화음 을과연제도, 관습안으로수용할것인가에관한것이었다. 제1작법이라고몬테베르디가칭한아르투지의규범안에서예비없는불협화음은규범밖의것, 그러므로인정받을수없는것이었다. 하지만몬테베르디는이것을제도와관습안으로포함하는새로운규범을주창하는데그것을바로 제2작법 (seconda pratica) 이라고부른것이었다. 다시말하자면, 동일한음향인 예비없는불협화음 이아르투지의규범안에서는잘못된것, 틀린것, 그러므로중심에서벗어난
26 이화음악논집 나머지것으로여겨지는한편몬테베르디의새로운규범안에서는당당히중심을차지하는것으로여겨지는것이다. 실은 예비없는불협화음 만그런것이아니라그것을포함한모든 소음 들은 나머지 의소리들이다. 역사적, 사회적, 문화적맥락에서타자화된소리, 주변화된소리, 중심에서밀려난소리들이바로 소음 들인것이다. 4) 그렇다면, 이오페라에서주인공포페아가직면한문제는결국소음의문제와동일하다. 결국주변화되느냐아니면중심을차지하느냐하는것이이오페라의주제이기때문이다. 이러한맥락에서볼때 떠나겠다 라는네로의말을 끔찍한 소리로듣는포페아의입장이보다더포괄적으로이해되며, 또한몬테베르디가이를자신의대표적 소음 으로번역해내는깊은의미가드러난다. 5) 4) 최근부상하고있는소리연구 (sound studies) 에서는여러학자들이소음의문제를역사적, 사회적, 문화적맥락으로접근하고있다. 특히, Michael Goddard, Benjamin Halligan, and Paul Hegarty, Reverberations: the Philosophy, Aesthetics and Politics of Noise (New York: Continnum, 2012) 는최근의연구를효율적으로정리하고있다는점에서추천할만하다. 5) 이부분을조금더음악적으로살펴보자면다음과같다. 1막의 3장은포페아의노래로시작된다. 이때포페아의노래는 d음을종지음으로갖는조성내에자리잡고있다. 이어지는네로의노래는 떠나지말라 는포페아의바램과는정반대인 떠나게해주오 라는내용을가지고있고이때네로의종지음은 f이다. 즉, 포페아의 d조성과네로의 f조성이대조를이루고있는것이다. 앞서살펴본바와같이그뒤에이어지는마디 268에서 275까지의포페아의노래는네로의노래에대한즉각적반발을 f# 을포함한 D 장3화음으로표현하고있고 ( 마디 267-268), 그후에는네로를설득하는내용을, 바로네로의조성인 f로노래하고있다 ( 마디 269-275). 그렇다면그후에이어지는내용은다시자신의주장 머물러주세요 라는내용인것이고당연히음악적으로는종지음은포페아의첫종지음인 d음으로돌아오고싶어한다. 마디 276에서 279는음악적으로볼때종지음 d로돌아오려는시도이다. 선율선은 g음부터순차상행하여 d를강력히요구하는 c# 음에서머물게되고, ( 물론 d조에서 iv화음의제1전위를암시하는 b 베이스위에서잠시 d음이보조적으로등장하지만 ) 이때 c# 음은 d조의딸림화음을암시하는베이스 a음위에서확고히자리잡는다. 기대되었던 d 3화음으로의진행은이문장이 왜나를떠나려고하나요? 라는의문문인까닭에잠시보류된다. 잠시보류되었던 d종지로의진행은다음행에붙여진음악의첫번째순간 ( 마디 280) 에서부터 ( 현대화성용어로말하자면 ) V6/V로강조되고마침내원하는 d
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 27 이러한점은마디 401를살펴보면더잘드러난다. 이부분은앞에서살펴본대로포페아가네로에게 돌아올거죠? 라고거듭해서묻는부분이며, 전체 4번의물음중에서세번째물음이다. 앞선두번의물음에대해서네로는포페아가바라는답 ( 돌아오겠소 ) 을하지않고장황하게다른말을하고난후이다. 이제세번째물음은베이스의 D음위의 B 음으로시작한다. 이때베이스의 D음은 D 장3화음을함축하므로 B 음은비화성음이되고, 역시앞의불협화음처럼 예비없는 불협화음이된다. 앞에서언급한불협화음이베이스 A음을바탕으로하고있고베이스와선율사이를 9도 ( 마디 281에서는장9도, 마디 375에서는단9도 ) 로만들어불협화음을빚고있지만마디 401에서는베이스 D음을바탕으로, 그자체로는불협화음이아니지만함축된화음밖의음을이루는베이스에서단6도떨어진음 (B ) 으로불협화음을만들어낸다는것이다르다. 하지만 예비없는 불협화음이라는점, 그리고 1막 3장전체를통해서바로이부분들에서만그예비없는불협화음이등장한다는것을생각해볼때, 앞에서살펴본불협화음과마디 401의불협화음을비교해볼필요가있다. 우선 401마디의불협화음은가사를반영하고있지않다. 6) 앞선부분 조의확실한딸림화음이마디 281에서강조된다. 끔찍한소리 가들리는것은바로이순간이다. 음악적으로보자면 d조로의회귀가강조되는딸림화음이확립되는순간, 수사적으로보자면설득을위해네로의어조 (f 중심음조 ) 에맞추어준뒤다시자신의주장으로돌아오는순간, 상징적으로보자면네로의권력에서포페아자신의권력으로다시돌아오는그순간에 끔찍한소리 가들리는것이다. 6) 물론, 마디 394, 397, 401, 412에서반복되는이가사는의문형으로되어있고, 이에따라앞서열거한모든마디에서의음형은도약하행 + 2도상행으로이루어진다는점, 그래서의문형의상행하는어조를따르고있다는점은가사를반영하는지점이라고할수도있다. 또한 401마디의 b 음도부분적으로는이렇게반복되는가사와그음악을살피는것으로설명되기도한다. 마디 394에서첫두음은하행하는완전 5도 (a-d) 였고, 마디 397의경우그간격은완전 4도 (a-e) 로좁아졌다. 마디 401의경우당연히이두음정사이가더좁아질것을기대할수있는데, 이경우감4도 (b -f#) 로
28 이화음악논집 에서는가사의 그끔찍한소리 라는가사가일차적으로불협화음으로번역되었으나이부분에서의가사는 돌아올거죠? (Tornerai?) 이다. 앞부분의가사가불평의가사였다면, 마디 401의가사는오히려유혹의가사에가깝다. 이렇게각기다른가사에왜몬테베르디는동일하게예비없는불협화음이라는두드러진, 그래서그유사성을간과할수없는음향을사용하고있는것일까? 혹몬테베르디가이두부분의음향을일부러일치시키고있다면, 우리는그이유를추적해볼필요가있다. 우선마디 401의가사를잘음미해볼필요가있다. 돌아올거죠? 라는말은실은 그끔찍한소리 의대척점에있다. 왜냐하면 그끔찍한소리 의실체는 돌아가겠소 라는말이기때문이다. 마디 281과 375에서의 끔찍한소리 를발화한사람이네로라면, 마디 401에서발화하고있는사람은포페아이다. 그러면이소리를끔찍하게여길사람은마디 281과 375의경우살펴본대로포페아이고, 마디 401의경우네로이다. 그러나몬테베르디의음악은, 이대척점에있는각기다른소리가실은같은소리임을보여준다. 사실 돌아올거죠? 라는유혹의목소리는네로에게상당한위협이자도전이고실은 끔찍한소리 이다. 그것이두번에걸친앞선물음에네로가침묵한 ( 혹은딴소리를한 ) 까닭이다. 포페아에게 돌아온다 는말의실제의미는옥타비아를 떠난다 라는것이기때문이다. 옥타비아를떠난다는말은곧자신이자리잡고있는곳, 제도, 관습, 규율을떠난다는말이다. 그러므로포페아의유혹 돌아올거죠? 라는말은부인을, 결혼이라는제도를, 관습을떠날것이냐고묻는물음이며, 나를위해기꺼이중심에서떠날수있느냐고, 주변이될수있느냐고, 그래서소음이될수있느냐고묻는물음인것이다. 스스로타자가될수있느냐고묻는이물음을받는네로에게포페아의물음은역설적으로마디 줄어들고있다.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 29 281과 375에서처럼 끔찍한소리 이며, 몬테베르디는마디 401을음악으로번역하면서동일한어휘, 즉예비없는불협화음을사용하면서그것이같은것임을알려주고있다. 포페아의목소리, 물음은유혹이자동시에끔찍한소리인것이다. 오페라 포페아 전체의핵심은간단히말하자면, 권력의문제, 그리고중심과주변의이야기이다. 주변이었던포페아가중심으로, 중심이었던옥타비아가주변으로이동하는이야기이다. 제2작법논쟁을통해음악에있어서도동일한문제가존재한다는것을알고있었던몬테베르디에게이주제는특별히매력적이었을것이다. 결국중심과주변의문제는상황적이며, 문맥적이고, 구성된다는사실이이드라마를통해서매력적으로드러나니까. 그러므로이이야기가본격적으로시작되는 1막 3장을음악으로번역해나가면서몬테베르디는이오페라의주제전체를주변화된소리, 즉결정적인세번의 소음 으로압축해들려주고있다. Ⅴ. 나가는말 포페아 의 1막 3장에나오는예비없는불협화음을그저 불협화음 으로, 단순한음악적사건으로이해하는것은이음향적사건들의배후에숨겨진극적, 문화적, 사회적, 정치적의미를희미하게만든다. 이소리들은 소음 으로기능한다. 소음이란그자체로권력과맞닿아있으며, 상황적이고맥락적이며, 중심과주변의문제를포함한다. 포페아 이야기의맥락에서이음향은단순히당대의음악적규범과어울리지않는단순한 불협화음 이아니라, 오히려그음향을규범밖의것으로규정하는그시대와사회, 그리고이야기전체를은유하는것으로서의 소음 으로작용한다.
30 이화음악논집 그렇다면어떤특정한시기의음악작품을 소음 이라는준거틀로살피는것이이작품을살피는것에서만유효할까? 만일소음의문제와중심과주변에대한은유로여긴다면아마그지평은음악사와음악분석을아우르는더넓은지평으로확대될것이다. 이작품에서잠시살펴본소음의문제는이러한확장의몇가지흥미로운단초를제공한다. 우선소음은특정작품과그작품이속해있는사회, 시대, 문화의문맥을밝혀준다. 소음은항상상대적이고상황적이며문맥적이어서어떤특정한사회가어떤소리를소음으로여기는가하는것은결국그사회가어떤규범을가지고있는가를밝혀주는것이다. 예컨대소음의여러정의중하나인 큰소리 라는정의는매우강력하여우리나라를포함한여러국가에서소음을법으로규정하는근거가되고있다. 그러나 큰 소리란상대적이다. 누구에게, 어디에서, 어떤상황에서라는조건에따라 큰 소리란매번다르게규정될수있는것이다. 그렇다면특정사회에서, 혹은음악작품에서소음으로규정되는소리를살핀다는것은그사회의, 작품의다양한문맥을살피는것을의미한다. 마찬가지의미이지만, 그러므로소음에는권력이각인되어있다. 다시말하자면소음은번역된권력이라고할수있다. 소음은단순한소리가아니라이미평가된소리이며, 곧이데올로기와권력관계가스며들어있는소리라고할수있는것이다. 더구나흥미로운점은권력이소음으로번역될때는그사회의방식을따른다는점이다. 음악적소리뿐만아니라소음역시그소리를둘러싸고있는규범을따른다. 규범밖의소리역시부정적방식으로라도그규범의지배를받는것이기때문이다. 그러므로소음은마치음악이론에서인정되는음악적소리처럼, 그것이소음이되는양상 (mode) 과형식을가지고있다고말할수있다. 포페아 에서몬테베르디가사용한소음이다양한맥락에서의미를가질수있는것은그것이 17세기의양상과형식을통해서소음이되었기때문이다.
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 31 마지막으로소음은, 앞에서 포페아 를통해서살펴본것처럼, 일종의매혹, 혹은유혹으로작용한다. 포페아가네로에게묻는 돌아올거죠? 라는소리는네로에게끔찍한소리이기도하지만유혹이기도하다. 그것은기존의질서와기존의관계를해체하고새로운관계를만들어나가자고하는유혹이다. 기존의관습과규범이금지하고있던것을깨뜨리고나가새로운규범을만들자고하는유혹인것이다. 음악의의미를정보이론으로설명해보고자했던마이어 (Leonard B. Meyer, 1918-2007) 은소음이음악의의미를만들어나가는중요한요소라고주장한바있다. 7) 더나아가그는기존규범에대한낯선소리로서의소음은새로운장르, 새로운음악을만들어나가는데필수적요소라고주장하고있다. 이처럼한시대, 특정문맥에서소음으로규정된소리는적극적으로보자면새로운시대, 새로운양식을만들어나가는잠재적힘을가지고있는유혹이라고이해할수있는것이다. 만일몬테베르디의불협화음을그저단순한음향으로, 음악적사건으로여기는것이아니라중심과주변에관한은유, 소음으로이해하는것이 포페아 라는작품을더깊이이해하는데도움을주었다면, 이제이러한접근방식을다른작품, 다른시대로옮겨적용해보는일이필요할지도모른다. 일찍이소음에주목했던아탈리 (Jacques Attali, 1943- ) 의말을좀비틀어보자면이렇게말할수있을지도모른다. 지난수세기동안음악학자들은듣기좋은소리에만귀를기울여왔다. 실은듣기싫은소리, 소음에귀기울여야했는데말이다. 8) 7) Leonard B. Meyer, Music, the Arts and Ideas (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967), 16-18. 8) Jacques Attali (trans. by Brian Masumi), Noise (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), 3. 원래내용은다음과같다. 25세기동안서구의지성은세계를바라보려고만했다. 세계는바라보는것이아니라는것을알지못했다. 세계는듣는것이다.
32 이화음악논집 주제어몬테베르디, 포페아의대관 (1642), 소음, 불협화음 Claudio Monteverdi, L incoronatione di Poppea(1642), Noise, Dissonance
Voce si amara, 몬테베르디의소음 33 참고문헌 정경영. 제2작법 되읽기. 낭만음악 제17권제4호 (2005년, 가을 ), 199-222. Belgiojoso, Ricciarda. Constructing Urban Space with Sounds and Music. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2014. Carter, Tim. Re-Reading Poppea : Some Thoughts on Music and Meaning in Monteverdi s Last Opera. Journal of Royal Musical Association vol. 122, no. 2 (1997), 173-204. Chafe, Eric. Monteverdi s Tonal Language. New York: Schirmer Books, 1992. Demers, Joanna. Listening through the Noise. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2010. Erlmann, Veit. (ed.) Hearing Cultures. New York: Berg, 2004. Fabbri, Paolo and Tim Carter. New Sources for Poppea. Music & Letters vol. 74, no. 1 (Feb., 1993), 16-23. Farina, Almo, Soundscape Ecology. Urbino: Springer, 2014. Goddard, Michael, Benjamin Halligan, and Paul Hegarty. Reverberations: the Philosophy, Aesthetics and Politics of Noise. New York: Continnum, 2012. Lewis, Rachel. Love as Persuasion in Monteverdi s L incoronazione di Poppea : New Thoughts on the Authorship Question. Music & Letters vol. 86, no. 1 (Feb., 2005), 16-41. Novak, David and Matt Sakakeeny(ed.) Keywords in Sound. Durham and London: Duke University, 2015. Rosand, Ellen. Seneca and the Interpretation of L Incoronazione di Poppea. Journal of the American Musicological Society vol. 38, no. 1 (Spring, 1985), 34-71.. Operatic Ambiguities and the Power of Music. Cambridge Opera Journal vol. 4, no. 1 (Mar., 1992), 75-80. Salomé, Voegelin. Listening to Noise and Silence. New York: Continuum, 2010. Sterne, Jonathan. (ed.) The Sound Studies Reader. New York: Routledge, 2012. Wiley, R. Haven. Noise Matters. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015.
34 이화음악논집 Abstract Voce si amara, Monteverdi s Noise: A case of Act 1, Scene 3 from L incoronatione di Poppea(1642) Kyung-Young Chung In Act 1, Scene 3 from the opera, L incoronatione di Poppea(1642), Monteverdi employed a specific, unprepared dissonance, three times. These dissonances are not simple musical elements. They implies and symbolizes the main subject of the opera, the power relationship between the center and the marginal. In this sense, they can be considered as noises which has relative and contextual meanings in a certain historical, cultural, and sociological contexts.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반 판타지아전곡비교분석연구 9) 김영 목차 Ⅰ. 들어가면서 Ⅱ. J. S. 바흐판타지아의음악적유산 Ⅲ. W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐판타지아의유형별비교분석 Ⅳ. 나가면서참고문헌 Abstract - 논문접수일 (7 월 30 일 ), 심사일 (8 월 30 일 ), 게재확정일 (9 월 12 일 )
36 이화음악논집 개요 판타지아 (Fantasia) 란작곡가의창의적상상력이나음악외적내용등을각시대의대표적인음악양식에반영시킨장르이다. 초기발전단계인 16세기말에는당대의전형적인 일관모방양식 (Points-of-Imitation Style) 으로작곡되는데, 그안에자유로움을포함하는정도였으나, 차차자유로움이강화되는쪽으로진행된다. 그리고이런과정에서판타지아는같은시기에등장했던즉흥양식인 토카타 와 카프리치오 에밀려쇠퇴하기시작한다. 하지만건반음악판타지아는 J. S. 바흐에의해명맥이이어질뿐아니라이후발전의중요한이정표가된다. 그리고그의두아들인 W. F. 바흐와 C. P. E. 바흐는이유산을바탕으로건반판타지아의전형을성립시킨다. 즉, 이들의양식은모차르트와베토벤판타지아의출발점이되고 19세기의작곡가들에게도전수된다. 이와같이건반판타지아의양식사적연구에서이들의작품들이매우중요한위치를차지하고있음에도불구하고, 두아들은물론이고 J. S. 바흐의판타지아조차아직도체계적으로정리되어있지않다. J. S. 바흐의 반음계적판타지아 를제외한다른작품들의연구는미흡한상태이고, W. F. 바흐의건반판타지아도 10개에이르지만한번도심도있게논의된적이없다. C. P. E. 바흐의경우에는 18곡이남아있지만그의이론서에서언급된 판타지아 개념또는즉흥적인요소정도가부분적으로다루어진데에불과하다. 따라서본고에서는 J. S. 바흐의판타지아양식을개괄해본다음, 그결과도출된 4가지양식적유형을바탕으로 W. F. 바흐와 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아전곡을비교분석하여본다.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 37 Ⅰ. 들어가면서 판타지아 (Fantasia) 란자유로운즉흥성을바탕으로한작곡가의창의적상상력이나음악외적내용등을각시대의지배적인음악양식에반영시킨장르이다. 초기발전단계인 16세기말에는당대의전형적인 일관모방양식 안에서자유로움이보완되는정도였으나, 차차 엄격대위법 이쇠퇴하면서는자유작법이상대적으로더강화되는쪽으로진행된다. 1) 그리고이런과정에서판타지아는같은시기에등장했던즉흥양식인 토카타 (Toccata) 와 카프리치오 (Capriccio) 에밀려쇠퇴하기시작하고, 현존하는당대의판타지아들자체도오르간용이훨씬많다. 그러나건반판타지아는 J. S. 바흐 (Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685-1750) 에의해명맥이이어질뿐아니라이후발전의중요한이정표가된다. 그리고그의두아들인 W. F. 바흐 (Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, 1710-1784) 와 C. P. E. 바흐 (Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-1788) 는이유산을바탕으로건반판타지아의전형을성립시킨다. 2) 즉, 이들의양식은모차르트 (Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1756-1791) 와베토벤 (Ludwig van Beethoven, 1770-1827) 판타지아의출발점이되고 19세기의작곡가들에게도전수된다. 3) 이와같이건반판타지아의양식사적연구에서이들의작품들이중요 1) 박윤경, 음악적판타지에관한소고, 음악이론연구 18 (2012), 124-134; Peter Schleuning, Die Freie Fantasie (Göppingen: Verlag Alfred Kümmerle, 1973), 6-23; Christopher D. S. Field and E. Eugene Helm, Fantasia, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), 8: 545-555. 2) 또다른아들로서영국에서활동한 J. C. 바흐 (Johann Christian Bach, 1735 1782) 의경우는판타지아를전혀남긴바없다. 3) 오윤록, 베토벤환상곡의특징과역사적의미, 음악연구 25 (2001), 152; Hon-Lun Yang, The fantastic Beethoven and Stylus Phantasticus, 音樂藝術論壇 3 (1994), 253-260; 최승현, 모차르트의건반악기환타지아에관한소고, 연세음악연구 3 (1995), 22.
38 이화음악논집 한위치를차지하고있음에도불구하고, 두아들은물론이고 J. S. 바흐의판타지아조차아직도체계적으로정리되어있지못한형편이다. J. S. 바흐의 반음계적판타지아 (Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue BWV 903, 1723 이전 ) 를제외한다른작품들의연구는미흡한상태이고, W. F. 바흐의건반판타지아도 10개에이르지만한번도심도있게논의된적이없다. C. P. E. 바흐의경우에는 18곡이남아있지만그의이론서 (Versuch über die Wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen, 1753, 1762) 에서언급된 판타지아 개념또는즉흥적인요소정도가부분적으로다루어진데에불과하다. 4) 따라서본고에서는최초로 J. S. 바흐의판타지아를유형별로분류하여그들의음악적유산으로개괄하고이에기초하여 W. F. 와 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아전곡을비교분석해보겠다. Ⅱ. J. S. 바흐판타지아의음악적유산 16세기말에이탈리아와뒤이어영국에서등장하기시작한건반판타지아는 17세기초네덜란드의슈벨링크 (Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, 1562-1621) 의곡들에서결합 발전되고샤이트 (Samuel Scheidt, 1587-1654) 등의독일작곡가들에게전수된다. 5) 그러나그의제자였던샤이트는 4) Philip T. Barford, A Fantasia by C. P. E. Bach, Monthly Musical Record 85 (1995), 144-150; Douglas A. Lee, C. P. E. Bach and the Free Fantasia for Keyboard: Deutsche Staatsbibliothek Mus. Ms. Nichelmann IN, C. P. E. Bach Studies, ed. Stephen L. Clark (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 177-184; Diether de La Motte, Spezialanalyse-Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Freie Fantasie für Klavier, Musikalische Analyse, Mit kritischen Anmerkungen von Carl Dahlhaus 1 (1968), 95-105; 양경아, C. P. E. Bach의건반악기판타지아연구, 피아노음악연구 1 (2007), 31-51; 이정윤, C. P. E. 바흐의 Free Fantasia 연구, 음악교수법연구 11 (2013), 43-60; 최승현, C. P. E. Bach의건반악기즉흥연주에관한小考, 한국음악학회논문집음악연구 10 (1993), 25-36. 5) 이탈리아의경우프레스코발디 (Girolamo Frescobaldi, 1583-1643) 의모방양식적인판
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 39 오르간판타지아 (4곡) 만남겼고, 그밖에이탈리아 프랑스 영국등에서국제적인활동을보였던동시대의프로베르거 (Johann Jakob Froberger, 1616-1667) 는 7곡의건반판타지아를남기기는했지만모두모방적인초기양식범주에머무르는것들이다. 6) 이후이탈리아나프랑스작곡가들은물론이고뵘 (Georg Böhm, 1661-1733), 북스테후데 (Dietrich Buxtehude, 1637-1707), 파헬벨 (Johann Pachelbel, 1653-1706) 등다음세대의독일작곡가들에서도건반판타지아는전무할정도이다. 7) 바흐동시대인들의경우에는, 텔레만 (Georg Philipp Telemann, 1681-1767) 이매우예외적으로 37곡을남겼는데, 단당대에널리유행하던 궁정오페라 (Opera seria) 에서의전형적인아리아형식, 즉 다카포 (Da capo) 형식일색의단순한호모포니적짜임새로되어있다. 8) 반면 J. S. 바흐의건반판타지아는 7곡에불과하지만상대적으로훨씬중요하다 ( 그밖에 8곡의오르간판타지아도있다 ). 9) 왜냐하면단순한 타지아가 13곡이있으나이후이탈리아에서는건반악기판타지아가거의사라진다. 영국에서는실내판타지아가주를이루다가차차건반판타지아로대체되고버드 (William Byrd, ca.1540-1623) 등의작품으로대표되는데, 모방기법 vs. 장식 즉흥적인호모포니패세지의대조가특징적이다 ( 오윤록, 베토벤환상곡의특징과역사적의미, 150). 슈벨링크는이런양식들이결합된 18곡의판타지아를남겼다. 6) David B. Boyden, Froberger, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 8: 284-286; Kerala J. Snyder and Douglas Bush, Scheidt, 위의책 22: 452-453, 458; http://imslp.org/wiki/category:composers [2016. 3. 4. 접속 ]. 7) 파헬벨의경우에는 6곡의건반악기판타지아가있으나모두오르간을위한작품이다. 그리고 J. S. 바흐의또다른동시대작곡가인헨델 (Georg Friedrich Händel, 1685-1759) 의건반악기작품중판타지아는한곡에불과하다. 8) 슐로이닝 (Peter Schleuning) 은텔레만의판타지아가갖고있는템포변화에주목하며이탈리아의실내소나타 ( 빠름-느림-빠름 ) 와프랑스서곡 ( 느림-빠름-느림 ) 형식으로도보았고, 호모포니적짜임새는당시독일작곡가로서는이례적인것으로언급하고있다. Schleuning, Die Freie Fantasie, 28-29. 9) J. S. 바흐판타지아의총개수에대해서는사람마다견해의차이를보인다. 예를들어양경아는 24개, 오윤록의경우는 15개로제시하고있다. 논자의경우는 The New Grove Dictionary 의 Works List에서 Keyboard 장르중 Fantasia 이름을가진작품만을고려하였다. 양경아, C. P. E. Bach의건반악기판타지아연구, 36; 오윤록, 베토벤
40 이화음악논집 호모포니적진행만이아니라역사적변천과정에서차례로등장하는양식들, 즉일관모방양식, 3부분토카타양식, 복합형식적양식, 그리고자유즉흥양식의유형들을다양하게수용 확장시키고있기때문이다. J. S. 바흐의판타지아작품에서나타나는유형들을도표로정리하면다음과같다. < 표 1> J. S. 바흐판타지아의유형별작품분류 유형 번호 (BWV), ( 연도 ) 조성과마디수 특징 비고 Ⅰ ( 일관모방양식 ) Ⅱ (3 부분토카타양식 ) Ⅲ ( 복합형식적양식 ) 즉흥적뉘앙스를줄수있는변주형식이공통적으로포함됨 917 (1710 이전 ) 922 (1714 이전 ) 904 (1725) 906 (1738 경 ) 918 (1740 이후 ) (g, 61) (a, 106) (a, 111) (c, 40) (c, 134) 서주 (mm.1-2) 3 성부모방진행 (mm.3-61) : 3 개의주제 즉흥적패세지 모방진행 즉흥적패세지 (4 성부 ) 리토르넬로 ( 콘체르토 ) 형식 + 변주형식 : A-B-A-B -A-B -A 순환 2부분형식 + 변주형식 : a b a b a (2 성부 ) 론도형식 + 변주형식 : A-B-A -B -A -B -A 16C 말초기판타지아의전형. 그러나 3 개의주제를가진복잡한형태 16C 말메룰로토카타양식의전형 A: 호모포닉 B: 모방적 a: 호모포닉 b: 호모포닉 A: 호모포닉 / 모방 B: 모방적 (A, B 점차적으로변주 ) Ⅳ 903(*) (d, 79) A: 토카타풍서주푸가곡앞에서 환상곡의특징과역사적의미, 151.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 41 유형 번호 (BWV), ( 연도 ) 조성과마디수 특징 비고 ( 자유즉흥양식 ) (1723 이전 ) 944 ( 불명 ) (a, 9) B: 코랄풍아르페지오 C: 레치타티보 코랄풍아르페지오 서주 (Prelude) 의기능 (*) : Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue 라는표제를가진악곡 유형Ⅰ은가장옛형태에해당되는일관모방양식으로된것으로서한곡이여기에해당되는데, 작곡연도또한 1710년이전으로판타지아작품중가장먼저작곡된것이다. 2마디의 g단조하행스케일로된즉흥적패세지인서주를시작으로 3개의주제가모방진행을한다. 즉, 초기에성악곡편곡으로등장했던판타지아와는달리, J. S. 바흐의경우에는매우기악적뉘앙스의복잡한진행으로발전되었음을보여준다. < 악보 1> J. S. 바흐, Fantasia g-moll, BWV 917, 마디 1-8.
42 이화음악논집 위의악보를보면, g단조하행스케일이화려하게시작된후중간중간에쉼표가삽입되며 3옥타브에걸쳐흘러내려가면서서주를마무리한다. 이후 3개의주제가밀도감있게순서대로 (a b c) 제시되고모방된다. 유형Ⅱ는 3부분토카타양식으로메룰로 (Clandio Merulo, 1533-1604) 의 16세기말토카타방식을판타지아에적용한예로서역시 J. S. 바흐의초기에속하는점이흥미롭다. 10) 제1부분과제3부분이즉흥적이고중간부분이이와대조적으로대위적인진행으로되어있는데, 전자에서는한두개의특정음형이지속적으로진행하다가갑작스러운쉼표나페르마타, 그리고화려한스케일진행등이나타나고, 후자에서는짧은동기가쉼없이모방되고있다. 다음은첫번째즉흥적인부분가운데시작과끝부분을보여준다. < 악보 2> J. S. 바흐, Fantasia a-moll, BWV 922, 마디 1-2 와 32-33. 10) 메룰로식의토카타란즉흥적성격의자유로운토카타부분과모방적인대위법이교차하는방식으로구성된악곡 ( 즉흥 모방 즉흥의 3부분또는즉흥 모방 즉흥 모방 즉흥의 5부분 ). J. S. 바흐의음악적시기는활동지역에따라나뉘는데, 초기는아른슈타트와뮐하우젠 (Arnstadt & Mülhausen) 시대 (1703-1707) 와바이마르 (Weimar) 시대 (1708-1717) 이고중기는쾨텐 (Cöthen) 시대 (1717-1723), 후기는라이프찌히 (Leipzig) 시대 (1723-1750) 이다.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 43 위의악보를보면특정음형이지속적으로반복되는가운데이례적으로으뜸음에서증4도위의음에페르마타가나타나서흐름을갑자기정지시킨후화려한스케일진행으로마무리된다. 다음은짧은동기가매우활기차게모방진행되는중간부분의일부이다. < 악보 3> J. S. 바흐, Fantasia a-moll, BWV 922, 마디 34-41. 위의악보에표시된것처럼짧은음가와 2도하행으로된동기가넓은음역대에걸쳐지속적으로이동반복과모방되고, 이러한과정에서동기의 2도하행음들이연결되면서긴프레이즈의반음계적하행선율을동시에만들어낸다. 유형Ⅲ의복합형식적양식은두가지형식이결합된형태를말하는데, 당대의대표적인형식틀에즉흥적뉘앙스를줄수있는변주형식이공통적으로포함되어있고, 작곡시기도모두성숙기인중 후기에속한다. 이유형에속하는세곡중 BWV 904와 918은모두 A-B-A( ) -B -A( )-B -A의형태로되어있는데, 단전자의경우에는 A가콘체르토에서의 투티 (tutti), B는솔로파트를연상시키는점이다르다. 11) 이두곡에서시작과마지막은동일하게진행되는반면중간부분
44 이화음악논집 에서변주를일으키는데, BWV 904보다 10여년이상늦게작곡된 BWV 918에서는리프레인 (Refrain) 에해당하는 A에서도변주가계속적으로일어날뿐아니라 A와 B를제외하고는그경계가모호할만큼변주가더두드러진다. 하지만두곡모두이런부분들이모방진행으로되어있어즉흥성에는어느정도한계가있기도하다. 다음은이두곡중 BWV 904의 A와 B부분의일부이다. < 악보 4> J. S. 바흐, Fantasia a-moll, BWV 904, 마디 1-12. A부분은병진행과반진행하는성부들사이를나머지성부들이채워가는방식으로최대 6성부로진행하면서합창또는 투티 와같은효과를만들어내고있다. 반면온쉼표등상대적으로울림이적어솔로파트를연상시키는 B부분은짧은동기 ( ) 들이각성부들에서한번씩출현한후에지속적으로모방하고있다. 순환 2부분형식과변주형식이결합되어있는 BWV 906은오른손과왼손의교차와넓은도약등이기교적인연주능력을요구하는동시에 11) 양경아, C. P. E. Bach 의건반악기판타지아연구, 36.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 45 J. S. 바흐의판타지아중 가장밝고사랑스러운작품 으로서모차르트와베토벤의판타지아에도영향을준것으로평가되고있는곡이다. 12) 다음은그가운데첫째부분의 a 와둘째부분에서의변주 a 의시작부분을보여준다. < 악보 5> J. S. 바흐, Fantasia c-moll, BWV 906. 1 a: 마디 1-2, 5-6. 2 a : 마디 17-18, 21-22. 12) Konrad Küster, Bach Handbuch, 800; a b a b a 의형식인점에서도미니코스카를라티 (Domenico Scarlatti, 1685-1757) 의소나타를연상하게한다는견해도있다. 김인일, J. S. Bach의반음계적환상곡과푸가 (BWV 903) 의연주해석에대한연구, 예술논문집 18 (2004), 11.
46 이화음악논집 위의악보를보면, 높은음역에서시작되는 3화음적하행아르페지오, 연속적인셋잇단음표, 두옥타브가넘는상행도약, 장식음등이곡의분위기를유연하거나밝게만들고있다. a와 a 의시작부분은비슷하지만, 중간부분 (a의마디 5-6과 a 의마디 21-22) 은반진행, 3도분산하행, 반음계적음형, 지속적인모방진행등과함께상대적으로많이변주되는모습을보인다. 마지막으로특정한틀에메이지않는자유즉흥양식인유형 Ⅳ는카덴차 (Cadenza), 카프리치오, 프렐류드, 토카타, 레치타티보 (Recitativo) 에나타나는 자유로운 작곡방식의특성들이다양하게반영된것으로볼수있는데, 파헬벨등의오르간판타지아에서이미시도된바있지만베이스 ( 오르간페달 ) 가흔히긴음으로묶여있고따라서즉흥성은그비중이약하다. 13) 반면이에해당하는건반판타지아는 J. S. 바흐에의해시작된것으로추정되는데, 14) 두곡 (BWV 903과 944) 이여기에해당된다. 모두판타지아이후에푸가를포함하는작품으로서판타지아가서주역할을하고있기때문에부수적인부분으로취급되기쉽지만, 특히 반음계적환상곡 은매우예외적으로토카타풍의서주 ( 마디 1-26), 코랄풍의아르페지오 ( 마디 27-49), 레치타티보 ( 마디 49-74), 반음계적화성으로진행하는코다 ( 마디 75-79) 로이루어져있는변화무쌍한곡이다. 다음은이곡특정부분들의일부이다. 13) 파헬벨의내림마장조 < 판타지아 >(Fantasia in E ) 등이그예이다. 14) 양경아는 18세기전반파헬벨과 J. S. 바흐에의해이미프리판타지아가형성되었다고하였다. 양경아, C. P. E. Bach의건반악기판타지아연구, 35.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 47 < 악보 6> J. S. 바흐, Fantasia d-moll, BWV 903. 1 마디 1-4 ( 토카타풍서주 ). 2 마디 32-52 ( 코랄풍아르페지오와레치타티보부분 ). 위의악보에서서주를시작하는 d단조의빠르고화려한스케일진행은유형Ⅰ의 BWV 917과매우비슷하지만여기서는스케일진행후에도토카타풍의즉흥적성격이유지된다. 두번째부분은코랄풍의아르페지오로서속7화음과감7화음의지배적진행이곡의긴장감을고조시
48 이화음악논집 킨후 a단조의 Ⅴ ⅰ로일단락되는듯보이다가다시레치타티보로이어지면서또다시반전이일어난다. 마지막으로 BWV 944는그의판타지아가운데가장짧은것 (9마디) 으로서명실공히서주의역할을한다. 다음은이악곡의전체이다. < 악보 7> J. S. 바흐, Fantasia a-moll, BWV 944. 전체적으로 7, 9화음과그해결로이루어져있는코랄풍의아르페지오로서바깥성부들에는반음계적진행도포함되어있는데, BWV 903 의다양한진행중아르페지오부분에해당하는정도이다. 이와같이 J. S. 바흐는그의판타지아에서전통을수용하고접목했을뿐만아니라한걸음앞으로도나아간것을볼수있다. Ⅲ. W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐판타지아의유형별비교분석 W. F. 바흐와 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아는각각 10곡이상이고작곡시기도공통적으로 1750년이후로서이둘의판타지아연구는 18세기후반중 북부독일판타지아의흐름을알수있는중요한단서가될것이다. 15) 이번장에서는이둘의판타지아를앞장에서제시한 J. S. 바흐 15) W. F. 바흐의건반악기작품으로는이밖에도소나타 14 곡, 폴로네즈 13 곡, 푸가 10
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 49 판타지아의 4가지유형들을근거로비교분석함으로써부친의영향과함께이들판타지아의공통점과차이점을조망해보겠다. 다음은유형별비교분석표이다. < 표 2> W. F. 바흐 vs C. P. E. 바흐판타지아의유형별비교분석표 유형 번호 (F.) ( 연도 ) W. F. 바흐 (10 곡 ) C. P. E. 바흐 (18 곡 ) 마디수 ( 조성 ) 형식과음악적특징 번호 (Wq.) ( 연도 ) 마디수 ( 조성 ) 형식과음악적특징 Ⅰ / / / / / / Ⅱ / / / / / / Ⅲ 22( ) (1750) 20 (1770) 14( ) (1770-1775) 16 (1770-1775) 48 (G) 66 (e) 64 (C) 154 (c) 3 부분 + 변주 : A A A ( 짧은모방 +) 론도 + 변주 : A B A B A (A: 모방 +, 다감양식 ; B: 호모포닉 / 선율적 ) 순환2부분 + 변주 : a b c a b ( 단순 : 빠른음형 ; c: 발전부적성격 ) 3 부분 + 변주 : A A A (A[abc], A [a b ], 63.6 (1753) 58.6 (1779-1782) 58.7 (1779-1782) 59.5 (1779-1784) 23 (c) 36 (E ) 29 (A) 28 (F) 3 부분 + 변주 : A B A (A: 즉흥적, 내부변주 + B: 다감적 ) 3 부분 + 변주 : A B A (A: 즉흥적 ; B: 호모포닉 ; A, B 내부변주 +) 3 부분 + 변주 : A B A (A: 즉흥적, 다감적 ; B: 단순, 내부변주 +) 3 부분 + 변주 : A B A (A: 즉흥적 ; B: 호모포닉 ; 곡, 조곡 ( 모음곡 ) 들과소품들이있다. C. P. E. 바흐의경우는 150곡이상의소나타와 12곡의변주곡과그외에다수의소품들이있는데, 그가저술한이론서의마지막장을즉흥연주 ( 판타지아 ) 에전부할애할만큼그에게있어판타지아는중요한장르였고생애마지막까지작곡되었다. 그리고이둘의활동지역을살펴보면, W. F. 바흐는중부독일의드레스덴 (Dresden) 과할레 (Halle), 그리고북부의베를린 (Berlin) 이고, C. P. E. 바흐의경우는북부의베를린과함부르크 (Hamburg) 에서활동했다.
50 이화음악논집 유형 Ⅳ 번호 (F.) ( 연도 ) 17( ) (1770-1775) 18( ) (1770-1775) 19 (1770-1775) 23 (1770-1775) 15 (1770-1775) 21 (1770-1775) W. F. 바흐 (10 곡 ) C. P. E. 바흐 (18 곡 ) 마디수 ( 조성 ) 28 (D) 37 (d) 136 (d) 73 (a) 424 (c) 184 (e) 형식과음악적특징 A [a 코다 ]) (a: 모방, 다감양식 ; b: 즉흥적 arp.; c: 모방, 선율적 ) 3 부분 + 변주 : A A A ( 단순 : 빠른음형 ) 다카포 + 변주 : A B A ( 단순 : 빠른음형 ; B: 발전부적성격 ) 론도 + 변주 : A B A B A (A: 즉흥적, 다감양식 ; B: 모방 ) 2 부분 + 변주 : A B A A B B (A: 즉흥적, 다감적 ; B: 모방 ) 즉흥 vs 모방 vs 선율적 번호 (Wq.) ( 연도 ) 59.6 (1779-1784) 61.3 (1785-1786) 61.6 (1785-1786) 67 (1788) 119.7 (1754) 즉흥 vs 선율적 117.14 (1762) 마디수 ( 조성 ) 141 (C) 115 (B ) 215 (C) 46 (f#) 19 (c) 1 (D) 형식과음악적특징 A, B: 다감 +, 내부변주 +) 3부분 + 변주 : A B A (A: 다감적, 즉흥적 ; B: 모방 +; A, B 내부변주 + ) 론도 + 변주 : A B A B A (A: 6마디도입부기능 ; B: 자유즉흥, 내부변주 +) 론도 + 변주 : A B A C A (A: 동기적선율 ; B: 다감적 ; C: 코랄풍선율 ; A, B, C 내부변주 +) 론도 + 변주 : A B A B A (A: 즉흥적 ; B: 선율적 ; A, B 내부변주 +) < 판타지아와푸가 >: 푸가직전의서주기능 스케일 vs. 코드 (arp.) / / / 112.2( ) (1765) 19 (D) 단순한진행
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 51 유형 번호 (F.) ( 연도 ) W. F. 바흐 (10 곡 ) C. P. E. 바흐 (18 곡 ) 마디수 ( 조성 ) 형식과음악적특징 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 번호 (Wq.) ( 연도 ) 112.8( ) (1765) 112.15 (1765) 113.3( ) (1766) 114.7 (1766) 117.11( ) (1770) 117.12( ) (1770) 117.13 (1770) ( ): 교육용으로보이는악곡, : 유형Ⅲ 가운데즉흥적음형도많이내포하는악곡 + : 포함 을의미 마디수 ( 조성 ) 12 (B ) 1 (F) 7 (d) 1 (d) 14 (G) 14 (d) 1 (g) 형식과음악적특징단순한진행 ( 부점, 장식음, 다감적성격 ) arp. 와분산음형 단순한진행 ( 화려한오른손패세지 ) arp. 와분산음형 단순한진행 ( 화려한오른손패세지 ) 단순한진행 ( 화려한오른손패세지 ) 분산, 반음계, 스케일, arp. recit. 적인패세지들 위의표를통해알수있듯이, 판타지아의초기형태인 Ⅰ과 Ⅱ 유형은전혀나타나지않는다. 유형Ⅲ은 J. S. 바흐의경우처럼공통적으로변주형식의결합을일관되게보여주는가운데 2부분또는 3부분형식과론도형식이지배적이다 (3부분형식-9곡, 론도형식-5곡, 2부분과순환 2부분형식-2곡 ). 특히 W. F. 바흐의경우유형Ⅲ이 10곡중 8곡 (80%) 을차지하는가운데그절반이모방기법을포함하고있는점에서부친의판타지아를상당부분그대로계승하고있다고볼수있다. 세부적으로
52 이화음악논집 는크게템포와음형에서별로두드러진대조를보이지않는단순한악곡 (F.22, 14, 17, 18) 과대조와다양성이포함된악곡 (F.20, 16, 19, 23) 으로나누어지는데, 이런구분이시간적흐름과일맥상통하기도하고 다감양식 의출현 발전과도깊은관련이있기는하지만, 전반적으로는부친의판타지아와유사하다. 16) 다음은후자에속하는네곡들중 F.16의일부를보여준다. < 악보 8> W. F. 바흐, Fantasia c-moll, F.16. 1 a( 마디 1-3), a ( 마디 45-47), a ( 마디 114-119). 16) 다감양식이란 1750-1770년초의북부독일을중심으로활동한 W. F. 바흐, C. P. E. 바흐, 크반츠 (Johann Joachim Quantz, 1697-1773), 벤다 (Franz Benda, 1709-1786) 등의작곡가들에의해대표되는음악양식으로격정적이거나변덕스러운감정표현을추구한다. Donald J. Grout, A History of Western Music (New York, London: W W Norton, 1988), 559.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 53 2 b( 마디 17-23), b ( 마디 55-62). 위의악보에서각변주의시작부분 a, a, a 는조성 (c E g) 의변화를제외하고는거의동일하고, b와 b 또한코랄풍의아르페지오음형을그대로유지하고있는것을볼수있는데, 앞의 J. S. 바흐판타지아예들 ( 악보 6, 7) 을그대로연상시킨다. 유형Ⅲ에속하는마지막곡 F.23의경우에는아직도모방진행을포함하고있기는하지만유형 Ⅳ로의과도기적특징도보인다. 즉, 빠르기의변화와음형의대조뿐만아니라무마디줄의변화로운즉흥적패시지들도선보인다 ( 시기적으로는이미 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아에서선보인것 ). 다음은이악곡의 A와 B의일부분이다.
54 이화음악논집 < 악보 9> W. F. 바흐, Fantasia a-moll, F.23. 1 형식 (A B A A B B ) 중 A 의시작부분. 2 B 의모방부분 ( 마디 17-21) A는무마디줄의자유즉흥적인부분으로무언가를갈망하듯이숨차게상행하다가페르마타로멈추어선후빠른스케일진행으로하강한다. 그리고화성적으로풍부한 Adagio의다감적선율과 Allegro의읊조리는듯한즉흥적인패시지가대조를이룬다. 그러나규칙적인마디줄과함께 2성부로모방진행하는 B는아직 J. S. 바흐의유형Ⅲ에서두드러졌던특성을그대로보여주고있다. C. P. E. 바흐의유형Ⅲ 판타지아도 8곡에이르지만, W. F. 바흐와의
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 55 다른점은그비중이그의전체판타지아중절반에못비치는정도 (40%) 인것과 Wq.63.6(1753) 을제외하고는모두다감양식의쇠퇴기인 1780년대에나타나는것이다. 즉, 그의경우는중기인 1750-1770년대에는다감양식의유행과함께 자유즉흥양식 ( 유형Ⅳ) 에집중한반면, 이런양식이쇠퇴하는 1780년대에뒤늦게유형Ⅲ이등장한다. 이와같은이유로인해음악적특징에서도모방진행은거의사라지고변주의비중과즉흥성은상대적으로훨씬강하게나타난다. 다음은유형Ⅲ 의 8곡중마지막작품으로서죽은해에작곡된 Wq.67의시작부분 (A) 인데, 론도형식안의변주형식이 W. F. 바흐보다더세밀하게결합되어있는동시에즉흥성과다감성도강하게남아있음을보여준다. < 악보 10> C. P. E. 바흐, Fantasia C-Dur, Wq.67.
56 이화음악논집 위의악보를보면, 첫두마디에서짧은동기적음형이제시된직후마디줄이사라지면서레치타티보적인자유로운패세지가 p 와 f 의교대와함께연속적으로변주되며등장하고, 또곧다른리듬형이출현하는등즉흥성이매우변화무쌍하다. 그러나 3d 에서이런진행이다시변주로재등장하면서형식적틀도고려되어있음을느낄수있다. 즉, 즉흥성이변주를통해효과적으로구조화되어있다. 마지막으로, 유형Ⅳ는 W. F. 바흐의경우에는두곡 (F.15, 21) 인반면 C. P. E. 바흐의것은절반 (10/18곡) 이상이이유형에속한다. W. F. 바흐의두곡은, 양적으로는얼마되지않지만, 다른유형의곡들보다큰규모로되어있고레치타티보와아르페지오등의즉흥적음형과다감양식적선율, 그리고모방기법등의다양한성격을포함하고있다. F.15는 424마디에이르며, F.21의경우는그의작품중자유즉흥양식이가장돋보이는작품이다. 다양한성격의선율들과빠르기의대조로극적분위기가고조되어있는데, 구성이 Furioso Recitativ Furioso Andantino Grave Prestissimo Andantino Recitativ Andantino Recitativ Andantino Recitativ Andante Prestissimo Grave Largo Furioso로매우변화무쌍하다. 다음은이곡에서동일한빠르기말이나나타냄말을가진부분들의일부를보여준다.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 57 < 악보 11> W. F. 바흐, Fantasia c-moll, F.21. 1 Furioso : 마디 1-3, 16-18, 174-176. 2 Andantino : 마디 30-35, 84-89, 93-94.
58 이화음악논집 3 Grave : 마디 48-50, 163-166. 4 Recitativ : 마디 7-9, 90-91, 107-108. 위의악보에서볼수있듯이각그룹들은조성의차이만있을뿐거의동일하다. 단레치타티보부분만상대적으로많은변화를보이는데, 이처럼즉흥성이강조된부분마저도역시마디줄은존재한다. 즉, W. F. 바흐의유형Ⅳ 는변화무쌍한부분들의진행으로이루어져있기는하나, 각각은아직도변주의틀을거의그대로유지하고있는것을알수있다. 반면, 유형Ⅳ에속하는 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아는연습곡성격의교육용으로보이는악곡을제외하고는모두마디줄이사라져있다. 10곡
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 59 의판타지아는세부적으로서주의기능을하는판타지아로서의 J. S. 바흐판타지아 (BWV 944) 를연상시키는 1곡 (Wq.119.7, 19마디 ), 교육용으로보이는 5곡 (Wq.112.2, 112.8, 113.3, 117.11, 117.12), 전체악곡에서마디줄없이진행되는 프리판타지아 17) 에해당하는 4곡 (Wq. 117.14, 112.15, 114.7, 117.13) 으로분류될수있는데, 다음은이 4곡중그가자신의이론서에자유즉흥양식의예로서제시한 Wq.117.14 악곡전체이다. < 악보 12> C. P. E. 바흐, Fantasia D-Dur, Wq.117.14. 17) 프리판타지아는 C. P. E. 바흐가직접언급한명칭으로그의이론서에서 다른악곡에서사용하는마디분할과는다르게규칙적인마디분할이없고, 기존의악곡들보다다양한조성으로전조된다. 하지만나름의규칙이있는데, 시작과끝의조성이동일해야하며, 박자표가제시되지않더라도보통 4/4박자로연주하며, 단조로운음색을피하고반음계적진행을사용한다 라고설명하고있다. C. P. E. Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, Translated & Edited by William J. Mitchell (New York, London: W W Norton, 1949), 430.
60 이화음악논집 이악곡은빠르게상 하행하는기교적인스케일진행과즉흥적성격의아르페지오의대조가반복적으로변주되며나타나는것을보여주는데, 사실마디줄이없다는것외에이와같은진행자체는 J. S. 판타지아와별로다르지않다 ( 악보 6의 2). C. P. E. 바흐의프리판타지아는이악곡외에 3곡이더있는데, 이중 2곡은역시예시곡수준의단순한곡이고나머지한곡인 1770년도의 Wq.117.13은이러한양식의진수를보여준다. 다음은이악곡의시작부분을보여준다.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 61 < 악보 13> C. P. E. 바흐, Fantasia g-moll, Wq.117.13, 18) 악곡의전반부분. 위의악보를보면대조적인성격을가진 2개의음형 (a¹, b¹ 로표시 ) 으로시작한다. a¹ 은넓은음역에걸친상행방향의펼침화음형태이고, 이후변주반복 (a²) 된다. 뒤이어매우대조적으로머뭇거리는듯한 3도하행으로시작되는 b¹ 과이것의변주 (b²) 가왼손의반음계를포함하는오른손의싱커페이션음형으로나타난다. 이와같이 a¹ 과 b¹ 음형의대 18) Musikalisches Vielerley (no.7), Hamburg: Michael Christian Bock, 1770.
62 이화음악논집 조가계속진행되는가운데 J. S. 바흐나 W. F. 바흐에서볼수있었던변주의한계를훨씬뛰어넘는즉흥성이두드러져있다. a³ 의경우즉흥적인화려한패시지로서의성격은유지되나, 하행스케일로음형패턴이변하고반복변주도없다. b³ 부분또한 b¹ 의시작부분에서나타나는하행진행은사라지고 b¹ 의리듬적요소만존재하는정도이다. 변주 b⁴ 또한음형의 3도중복과장식음의등장, 반음계적진행이사라진점등 b² 와의공통점을찾을수없을만큼변해있다. 짧은경과적패시지이후또다시 a¹ 이변주재현되는데 ( a⁴, a⁵) 코랄풍의아르페지오는 a¹ 의펼침화음을연상하게하지만조성이연속적으로변화하고길이도확장되어있으며 b⁵ 또한반음계적진행의방향이바뀌어나타나는등 b¹ 과 b² 의여러요소가자유롭게결합되어있다. 다음은동일한악곡의후반부를보여주는데, 새로운요소도등장한다. < 악보 14> C. P. E. 바흐, Fantasia g-moll, Wq.117.13, 악곡의후반부분.
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 63 후반부에서는앞에서전혀등장하지않았던새로운요소, 즉긴음가의화음으로정지되는레치타티보적진행들이대조되는다이나믹과함께극음악적분위기도연출한다. 그리고이후진행에서의시각적인흥미까지불러일으키는경과구적패시지 ( 위악보의제3단 ) 등도 C. P. E. 바흐자신이언급했던 프리판타지아 로서의진정한면모를보여주고있다. Ⅳ. 나가면서 건반판타지아의전형을성립시키는데중요한역할을한 J. S. 바흐의작품을체계적으로정리한후에그음악적유산을바탕으로 W. F. 바흐와 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아를 4가지양식적유형으로나누어비교분석한결과는다음과같다. J. S. 바흐는 16세기말까지거슬러올라갈수있는유형 Ⅰ( 일관모방양식의 BWV 917, 1710년이전 ) 과 Ⅱ( 즉흥-모방-즉흥의 3부분을가진토카타양식의 BWV 922, 1714년이전 ) 를그의활동초기에그대로또는상당히복잡하게구조화시킨형태로선보이다가, 차차당대의형식들을즉흥적뉘앙스를줄수있는변주형식과결합시킨유형Ⅲ을거쳐자유즉흥양식의유형Ⅳ도고안해낸다. 유형Ⅳ의두곡가운데하나로서토카타풍의서주, 코랄풍의아르페지오, 레치타티보, 반음계적화성으로진행하는코다로이어지는변화무쌍한 반음계적환상곡 은당대의그어느작곡가의작품에서도찾아볼수없는판타지아의새로운이정표이다. W. F. 바흐의 10곡과 C. P. E. 바흐의 18곡은모두유형Ⅲ 또는 Ⅳ에만해당되는데, 당대의새로운양식들, 특히다감양식이중요하게취급되어있고, 처음으로무마디줄의변화로운즉흥적패시지들도등장한다.
64 이화음악논집 이둘의유형Ⅲ 판타지아는똑같이 8곡이지만, C. P. E. 바흐의경우는그의중기에속하는 1750-1770년대에다감양식의유행과함께 자유즉흥양식 ( 유형Ⅳ) 에더집중한반면, 이런양식이쇠퇴하는 1780년대에야뒤늦게유형Ⅲ의판타지아들을내놓는다. 따라서유형 Ⅲ에속하는 W. F. 바흐의판타지아들에서는아직도모방적짜임새가비중있게나타나지만, 시기적으로뒤에속하는 C. P. E. 바흐의곡들에서는모방진행은거의사라지고즉흥성은상대적으로훨씬강하게나타난다. 무마디줄의경우만해도 W. F. 바흐는 1곡이지만 C. P. E. 바흐는전체 8곡으로나타난다. 여기서한걸음더나아가, W. F. 바흐와 C. P. E. 바흐판타지아의근본적인차이점은유형Ⅳ에서더확실하게드러난다. 2곡과 10곡이라는분량의차이만이아니다. W. F. 바흐판타지아에서는레치타티보, 아르페지오등의즉흥적음형과다감양식적선율그리고모방기법등의다양한성격의선율들과빠르기의대조로변화무쌍한진행을보여주기는하나, 각각은아직도변주의틀을거의그대로유지하고있다. 반면 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아중, 특히 Wq.117.13은변주의한계를훨씬뛰어넘는즉흥성과대조뿐만아니라긴음가의화음으로정지되는레치타티보적진행들이대조되는다이나믹과함께 8차례에걸쳐등장하며음악외적인내용을강력하게시사하는등판타지아양식의또다른경지를보여준다. 이와같은 C. P. E. 바흐의판타지아가모차르트와베토벤판타지아의출발점이되고 19세기의작곡가들에게도영감을주었던바로그것이었을것이다. 주제어판타지아, J. S. 바흐, W. F. 바흐, C. P. E. 바흐, 변주형식, 자유즉흥양식, 다감양식 Fantasia, J. S. Bach, W. F. Bach, C. P. E. Bach, variation, Free-Style, Empfindsamer Stil
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 65 참고문헌 김인일. J. S. Bach의반음계적환상곡과푸가 (BWV 903) 의연주해석에대한연구. 예술논문집 18 (2004), 1-61. 박윤경. 음악적판타지에관한소고. 음악이론연구 18 (2012), 118-142. 양경아. C. P. E. Bach의건반악기판타지아연구. 피아노음악연구 1 (2007), 31-51. 오윤록. 베토벤환상곡의특징과역사적의미. 음악연구 25 (2001), 147-172. 이정윤. C. P. E. 바흐의 Free Fantasia 연구. 음악교수법연구 11 (2013), 43-60. 최승현. 모차르트의건반악기환타지아에관한소고. 연세음악연구 3 (1995), 5-41.. C. P. E. Bach의건반악기즉흥연주에관한小考. 한국음악학회논문집음악연구 10 (1993), 25-36. Bach, C. P. E. Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. Translated & Edited by William J. Mitchell. New York, London: W W Norton, 1949. Bach, C. P. E. Musikalisches Vielerley. Hamburg: Michael Christian Bock, 1770. Barford, Philip T. A Fantasia by C. P. E. Bach. Monthly Musical Record 85 (1995), 144-150. Boyden, David B. Froberger. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol.8. Edited by Stanley Sadie. 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), 284-286. Field, Christopher D. S. and E. Eugene Helm. Fantasia. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol.8. Edited by Stanley Sadie. 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), 545-558. Grout, Donald J. A History of Western Music. New York, London: W W Norton, 1988. Snyder, Kerala J. and Douglas Bush. Scheidt. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol.22. Edited by Stanley Sadie. 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), 452-453, 458. Küster, Konrad. Bach Handbuch. Bärenreiter: Metzler, 1999.
66 이화음악논집 La Motte, Diether de. Spezialanalyse-Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Freie Fantasie für Klavier. Musikalische Analyse 1 (1968), 95-105. Lee, Douglas A. C. P. E. Bach and the Free Fantasia for Keyboard: Deutsche Staatsbibliothek Mus. Ms. Nichelmann IN. C. P. E. Bach Studies. Edited by Stephen L. Clark. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. Mattheson, Johann. Der Vollkommene Capellmeister. Translated by Ernest C. Harriss. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1981. Schleuning, Peter. Die Freie Fantasie. Göppingen: Verlag Alfred Kümmerle, 1973. Yang, Hon-Lun. The fantastic Beethoven and Stylus Phantasticus. 音樂藝術論壇 3 (1994), 221-261. 악보출처 : http://imslp.org/wiki/category:composers. 2016. 3. 4 접속
W. F. 바흐 vs. C. P. E. 바흐의건반판타지아전곡비교분석연구 67 Abstract A Comparative Analysis of Fantasias between W. F. Bach & C. P. E. Bach Young Kim Fantasia is considered as a genre or a musical composition that incorporates a contemporary composer s creative imaginative power with a free or improvisatory nature or different styles. During the late 16th century, fantasia was composed in points-of-imitation style in which it expressed at most freedom, but it much strengthened freedom over time. During this transition period, fantasia was alternatively replaced by the comtemporary improvisatory styles such as toccata and capriccio. Nonetheless, fantasia as keyboard music not only retained its life by J. S. Bach but also became a milestone for the following development. W. F. Bach and C. P. E. Bach solidified the achievement of J. S. Bach to establish the typical type of fantasia for the keyboard music. Namely, fantasia established by both W. F. Bach and C. P. E. Bach influenced Mozart s and Beethoven s fantasias, as well as 19 th century composers. Although fantasia established by both W. F. Bach and C. P. E. Bach were considered very important in studying a type of keyboard fantasia, few existing studies have not systematically investigated fantasias established by J. S. Bach and his two sons. In other words, the existing studies did not discuss 10 fantasias composed by W. F. Bach in depth at all, and even C. P. E. Bach s fantasias were slightly dealt with the definition of fantasia mentioned in his own theoretical book and fundamental improvisatory attributes at most. Therefore, this study
68 이화음악논집 attempts to examine J. S. Bach s fantasia thoroughly, and it employs 4 stylistic types resulting from the analysis of J. S. Bach s fantasias to comparatively analyze both W. F. Bach and C. P. E. Bach s entire keyboard fantasias.
어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과 교수학적아이디어 19) 유승지 목차 Ⅰ. 들어가면서 Ⅱ. 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 개요 Ⅲ. 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 에서발견되는달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 1. 색채감풍부한화성어휘구사, 그리고예측불가한조성변화 2. 연주자의다양한호흡을유도하는프레이즈 (phrase) 구성 3. 뉘앙스 (nuance) 의섬세한표현 Ⅳ. 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 활용을위한제언 Ⅴ. 나가는말참고문헌 Abstract 부록. 달크로즈피아노작품목록 - 논문접수일 (7 월 30 일 ), 심사일 (8 월 30 일 ), 게재확정일 (9 월 12 일 )
70 이화음악논집 개요 20세기를대표하는음악교육가달크로즈는교육용목적을위해많은피아노작품을작곡하였다. 하지만작곡가로서의그의활동과위상에대해서는잘알려져있지않다. 1906년에서 1907년에걸쳐달크로즈가작곡한 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 에는 내즉흥연주수업을듣는학생들에게 라고헌정대상이명시되어있는데, 19세기낭만주의로부터물려받은전통주의화성에바탕을두고있으면서소박하고아름다운선율을지니고있어달크로즈의음악어법을이해하기에매우좋은작품이다. 이에본연구는달크로즈의피아노작품 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 을분석함으로써작곡가로서의달크로즈를재인식할수있는계기를마련하고, 달크로즈가음악교육자로서가지고있던생각을어떻게작품속에녹여냈는지살펴보는것을목적으로이루어졌다. 그의작품은 1) 색채감풍부한화성어휘, 예측불가한조성변화, 2) 연주자의다양한호흡을유도하는프레이즈구성, 3) 뉘앙스의섬세한표현을담고있는것으로나타났고이러한음악적내용은그의교수학적아이디어로부터파생된것이었다. 따라서본연구의결과는이곡을연주하는연주자들, 가르치는교사들, 그리고교수학적필요에의해새로운작품을탐색하는연구자들에게유용한자료로제공될것이다. 또한국내에서전혀다루어지지않았던달크로즈의피아노작품관련연구의시발점이될것으로기대한다.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 71 Ⅰ. 들어가면서 달크로즈 (Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 1865-1950) 는코다이 (Zoltán Kodály, 1882-1967), 오르프 (Carl Orff, 1895-1982) 와더불어 20세기를대표하는음악교육가로알려져있다. 하지만작곡가로서의그의활동과위상에대해서는잘알려져있지않다. 창케르텅 (Jacques Tchamkerten, 1960-) 1) 은 달크로즈교수법은음악가로서그의경험으로부터파생된것이며, 달크로즈가교수법의체계적인발전을도모하기이전인 1883년부터작곡가로서활동을시작했다는것을잊어서는안된다 2) 고말한다. 달크로즈는스위스, 프랑스, 오스트리아를오가며당대의유명한음악가들 3) 에게사사하면서작곡가로서의음악적기초를다졌다. 당대의유명한바이올리니스트이자이 (Eugène Ysaye, 1858-1931) 가 프랑크, 생상, 포레, 드뷔시, 뱅상, 댕디, 달크로즈와같은이들은나의안내자이며스승이다 4) 라고대작곡가들의반열에달크로즈를포함시킬정도로당시 1) 스위스의피아니스트이자오르간연주자인창케르텅은 1960년제네바에서출생하였으며, 20세기제네바를중심으로활동한음악가들에관한연구로독보적인학자이기도하다. Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Impressions Fugitives: 40 Petites Pièces pour Piano (Genève: Editions Papillon, 2000), 2. 그는달크로즈의작품목록을집대성하고그의작품을알리기위한많은작업을하고있는데 1995년에출판된달크로즈의기악작품목록 Catalogue de l Œuvre Musical de Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 2000년에출판된성악작품목록 Catalogue Thématique des Chansons, Rondes et Mélodies d Emile Jaques- Dalcroze가그에의해완성되었고 2000년대이후출판된대부분의달크로즈작품집과음반의서문에그의글이실려있다. 2) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Vol Ⅰ: Chant et Piano GALL CD-1039 (Lausanne: Disques VDE-Gallo, 2000). 3) 들리브 (Léo Delibes, 1836-1891), 라비냑 (Albert Lavignac, 1846-1916), 뤼시 (Mathis Lussy, 1828-1910), 마르몽텔 (Antoine François Marmontel, 1816-1898), 브루크너 (Anton Bruckner, 1824-1896), 젱어 (Hugo de Senger, 1835-1892), 포레 (Gabriel Fauré, 1845-1924), 프로스니츠 (Adolf Prosniz, 1829-1917) 등이달크로즈가사사한음악가들이다. 4) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1990), 22.
72 이화음악논집 달크로즈는작곡가로서크게명성을떨쳤다. 1903년달크로즈가시와곡을쓰고무대를감독하고지휘까지한 보주민의축제 (Festival Vaudois) 공연에대한묘사를보면작곡가로서달크로즈의위상을짐작할수있다. 38세의나이에달크로즈는인생의정점에서있었다. 국민이사랑하는친근한노래의작곡자로서명성은이미널리알려져있었다. 달크로즈가진심으로원하고바라는일이라면사람들은자신의일을제쳐놓고그를위해달려와주었다. 그결과 2,500명이넘는배우, 가수, 참여자들이조국의역사를담은 5막극에참여하기위해모여들었다. 5) 하지만 1905년솔뢰르 (Soleure) 음악제를통해대외적으로교육자로서의명성을얻게되고, 1910년독일헬레라우 (Hellerau) 학교, 1915년제네바달크로즈인스티튜트 (Institut Jaques-Dalcroze) 가차례로설립되면서달크로즈는작곡가로서보다는교육자로서의활동에치중할수밖에없는환경에처하게되었다. 그러한과정을거치면서달크로즈는작곡뿐아니라자신의다른관심분야에도헌신했고, 이것은분명작곡가로서의발전을제한하는요인이되었다. 6) 그럼에도불구하고달크로즈는종교음악을제외한거의모든장르에걸쳐작품을남겼고, 7) 교육자로서교육적목적을위해많은작품을남겼다. 창케르텅은 헬레라우에서학생들을가르치기시작한 1910년을기점으로달크로즈는유리드믹스수업을효과적으로운용하기위한피아노작품작곡에몰두하기시작하였다 8) 고밝히면서이시기이후의달크로즈피아노작품의변화에대해다음과같이말한다. 5) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 43. 6) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 47. 7) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Vol Ⅱ: Musique de Chambre Ensemble Stanislas GALL CD-1040 (Lausanne: Disques VDE-Gallo, 1999). 8) Emile Jacques-Dalcroze, Six Danses Bigarrées pour Piano (Genève: Editions Papillon, 1999), Préface.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 73 가장두드러지는변화는리듬의사용에있어나타났고달크로즈는홑박자혹은겹박자의규칙적인프레임을깨는변박, 5박, 7박등리듬과박자에대해끊임없는실험을하였다. 이렇게달크로즈의관심이온통리듬의다양한실험에초점이맞춰지다보니이전작품에서볼수있었던천진난만하고소박한선율은다소사라지는현상이초래되었다. 9) 하지만 1906년에서 1907년에걸쳐작곡된 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 (Dix Miniatures pour Jeunes Pianistes) 은 19세기낭만주의로부터물려받은전통주의화성에바탕을두고있으면서단순한리듬에기초한소박하고아름다운선율을지니고있어작곡가로서전성기에있었던달크로즈의음악어법을이해하기에매우좋은작품이다. 또한 10개의소품을모아놓은모음곡이고각곡마다그가교수학적아이디어를창의적으로실험한흔적이보여교육자로서의생각이어떻게작품에반영되었는지볼수있는좋은작품이다. 따라서본연구는달크로즈의피아노작품 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 을분석함으로써교육자가아닌작곡가로서달크로즈를재인식할수있는계기를마련하고, 음악교육자로서그가가지고있었던교수철학및교수학적아이디어를어떻게작품속에녹여냈는지살펴보는것을목적으로이루어졌다. Ⅱ. 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 개요 빛나는즉흥연주능력을지녔던그는평생에걸쳐피아노를그가가지고있는음악적생각을풀어내는도구로활용하였다. 10) 창케르텅은 9) Emile Jacques-Dalcroze, Six Danses Bigarrées pour Piano, Préface. 10) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Vol 2: Musique de Chambre Ensemble Stanislas GALL CD- 1040.
74 이화음악논집 그의책 에밀자크-달크로즈의음악작품목록 (Catalogue de l Œuvre Musical de Emile Jaques-Dalcroze) 에서달크로즈의작품을 4개의장르, 즉피아노, 실내악, 오케스트라, 코레오그라피를위한작품으로구분하여소개하고있는데, 그책의서문에서 달크로즈가자필원고에작곡년도를기입하지않아그의작품을연도순으로정리하기가쉽지않았지만 1884년부터 1950년사이에발간된일간지에실린음악비평글을참고해서작곡년도를추측하는작업을했다 11) 고밝히고있다. 창케르텅의작품목록에서제시된가장초기의피아노작품은 1885년작곡된 가보트 (Gavotte) 이고가장후기작품은 1940년작곡된 순간적인인상들 : 피아노를위한 40개의모음곡 (Impressions Fugitives, 40 Petites Pièces pour Piano) 과 어린이를위한 16개의피아노모음곡 (Petites Musiques pour les tous Petits, 16 Miniatures pour Piano) 이다. 작품목록에는총 96개의작품 12) 이수록되어있는데한개의작품이단악장으로구성된작품도있지만, 박자와리듬연습을위한 50개의피아노모음곡 (50 Études Miniatures de Mètrique et Rythmique Ècrites pour le Piano) 과같이여러개의소품을조합하여하나의곡으로구성한모음곡형태의작품도많다. 그의피아노곡은대부분교육적목적을가지고작곡되었고 2부, 3부형식으로이루어져있다. 본연구에서다루어질 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 역시교육적목적을가지고작곡되었는데, 이작품은 어린이음악회 (Concert D enfants) 모음집에수록되어있다. 어린이음악회 는피아노독주곡, 피아노앙상블곡, 실내악곡, 노래극, 합창등다양한장르를아우르는작품이 22곡포함되어있는모음집이다. 달크로즈는 어 11) Jacques Tchamkerten, Catalogue de l Œuvre Musical de Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (Genève: Institut Jaques-Dalcroze, 1995), 1. 12) 창케르텅이정리한피아노작품목록을토대로달크로즈의피아노작품을연도순으로재정렬하여본논문의부록으로첨부하였다.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 75 린이음악회 첫장에수록된작품으로음악회를할경우를대비해서연주순서를명시한음악회프로그램을제시하였다. 또한음악회프로그램에는연주자의이름과나이도나와있는데, 연주자들의나이는 6세부터 16세에이른다. 13) 그런데놀라운것은 이프로그램에언급된연주자의이름과나이가모두허구 14) 라는사실이다. 당시달크로즈는제네바에서성인뿐아니라 5세이상의어린이들을위한수업을계속하였다고전해지는데, 15) 아마도달크로즈는자신이가르치던학생들의수준을상상하면서이모음집을작곡한것같다. 하지만어린이를대상으로작곡되었음에도불구하고이모음집에수록된음악들은결코유치하거나평범하지않다. 16) 힌슨 (Maurice Hinson) 은그의저서 피아니스트를위한레퍼토리가이드 (Guide to the Pianist s Repertoire) 에서 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 을 중급수준의전통화성에기초하여작곡된곡으로, 색채감이풍부하고대조적인특징들을지니고있다 17) 고소개하고있는데, 한곡이 1-2쪽으로이루어진 10개의작품으로구성되어있고조성, 박자, 템포, 형식은 < 표 1> 과같이요약될수있다. 13) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Concert D enfants (Paris: Sandoz, Jobin, 1907). 14) Jacques Tchamkerten, Emile Jaques-Dalcroze: Compositeur (Genève: Bibliotheque de Genève & La Baconnière, 2014), 40. 15) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 80. 16) Jacques Tchamkerten, Emile Jaques-Dalcroze: Compositeur, 40. 17) Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist s Repertoire Second Revised Edition (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994), 396. 힌슨은피아노레퍼토리를 4 개의등급 (Easy, Intermediate, Moderately difficult, Difficult) 으로구분하였고, 중급레퍼토리의척도를가늠할수있는곡으로 Bach, Twelve Little Preludes and Fugues, Beethoven, Ecossaises, Mendelssohn, Children s Pieces Op.72, Bartok, Rumanian Folk Dances를제시하였다. Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist s Repertoire Second Revised Edition, ⅩⅤ.
76 이화음악논집 < 표 1> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 구성 작품조성박자템포형식 1 번라단조 2/4 (3/4) 2 번사장조 3/4 3 번다장조 2/4 4 번사장조 4/4 5 번라장조 2/4 6 번가장조 3/4 7 번사장조 6/8 8 번다장조 4/4 9 번바장조 4/4 10 번다장조 4/4 Allegretto = 84 Andante cantabile = 58 Moderato = 69 Allegro moderato = 96 Allegretto simplice = 88 Andante = 63 Moderato gracioso = 96 Andante cantabile = 88 Mouvement de Gavotte = 152 Allegretto =104 2 부분형식 A(m.1-m.17) A (m.18-m.34) 2 부분형식 A(m.1-m.16) B(m.17-m.32) codetta(m.33-m.35) 3 부분형식 A(m.1-m.8) B(m.9-m.16) A (m.17-m.24) 2 부분형식 A(m.1-m.8) B(m.9-m.19) 2 부분형식 A(m.1-m.11) B(m.12-m.23) coda(m.24-m.31) 2 부분형식 A(m.1-m.12) B(b:m.13-m.26) coda(m.26-m.33) 2 부분형식 A(m.1-m.12) A (m.13-m.24) coda(m.25-m.36) 2 부분형식 A(m.1-m.13) B(m.14-m.25) 3 부분형식 A(m.1-m.24) B(m.25-m.40) A (m.41-m.64) 3 부분형식 A(m.1-m.8) B(m.9-m.20) A (m.21-m.26)
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 77 달크로즈가다양한박자와리듬의실험을위해작곡한다른작품들과비교해서보면, 이작품은매우전통적인범주에서박자와리듬을사용한것을알수있다. 유일하게변박이사용된 1번도변박의사용을통해불규칙한악센트의변화를유도하기보다는프레이즈의효과적인표현을위해일시적으로박자를변화시킨것에불과하다 ( 악보 1). 박자의변화가거의매마디마다일어나고전통적인박자표기대신 9/, 5/, 12/ 로표기되어있는 20개의카프리스와리듬연습곡 (20 Caprices et Etudes Rythmiques, 1918-1920) 에수록된작품들과비교하면그차이는극명하게나타난다 ( 악보 2). < 악보 1> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 1 번, 마디 28-33. < 악보 2> 20 개의카프리스와리듬연습곡 중 3 번, 마디 1-3.
78 이화음악논집 스위스의포스터 (Stephen Foster, 1826-1864) 로불리기도한달크로즈는평생동안 1,000여곡의노래를작곡했다고하는데, 그는주로스위스로망드지방의산과호수, 정원, 동물, 그리고아이들에게서영감을얻었고소박하고단순한선율로이루어진대중적인호소력을지닌작품들을남겼다. 18) 그의노래들에서풍기는이러한선율적특징은 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 에서도그대로나타난다. 낮은음역보다밝은음색을내는중간음역을선호해서사용하여 10곡모두양손을높은음자리표음역에서연주하도록작곡된부분들이상당부분포함되어있다. 또한화음을분산시키거나대위기법을적용해서 3도, 6도, 10도의울림이조화롭게울리는텍스추어가얇은선적인진행을즐겨사용하여가볍고맑은음색을만들어낸다. 어린이음악회 프로그램을보게되면 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 은 8세소년이연주할것으로명시한것을볼수있는데, 기교적으로어렵지는않지만변화무쌍한화성진행과과감한전조, 단순하지않은프레이즈의구성, 섬세한뉘앙스의표현을작곡가가요구하고있어음악적으로해석하고아름답게연주하는것이결코쉽지않은곡이다. Ⅲ. 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 에서발견되는달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 뒤투아컬리어 (Claire-Lise Dutoit-Carlier) 는 1874 년에출판된뤼시 19) 18) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 21-23. 19) 뤼시는이책에서악센트를다음과같이세종류로구분하고다음과같이설명하였다. 박자악센트 (metric accent) 는각마디의첫박을강조하는것을의미하고본능 (instinct) 적영역에속한다. 리듬악센트 (rhythmic accent) 는박자에상관없이리듬조합 (rhythmic group) 에따라각그룹의첫음혹은마지막음을강조하는것을의미하
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 79 의책 음악적표현에대한개론 (Traité de L expression Musicale) 은달크로즈로하여금아고긱 (agogic) 다이나믹(dynamic) 뉘앙스 감정 (pathetic) 리듬(rhythmic) 화성(harmonic) 선율(melodic) 악센트에대한연구를확신을가지고하도록만든책이었다 20) 라고하였다. 달크로즈는그의스승뤼시가제시한악센트와음악표현규칙을그의방식으로발전시켰고, 3권으로이루어진그의저서 음계와조성, 프레이즈와뉘앙스 (Les Gammes et les Tonalités, le Phrasé et la Nuancés) 에서악센트관련규칙, 프레이징관련규칙, 뉘앙스관련규칙을제시하였다. 21) 따라서달크로즈의음악어법을이해하고그의작품을음악적으로표현하기위해서는그가선율, 리듬, 화성의조합을통해어떻게악센트, 프레이징, 뉘앙스의규칙들을적용하고있는지살펴볼필요가있다. 1. 색채감풍부한화성어휘구사, 그리고예측불가한조성변화달크로즈는이작품에서 20세기초반많은작곡가들이보여준조성의체계를무너뜨리는혁신적인시도는보여주지않는다. 하지만목가적선율을낭만적음향으로덧입혀주는화음진행, 조성의테두리안에서적절하게사용한날카롭지않은불협화음, 한조에오랫동안머무르지않는빈번한전조가작품전반에사용되어달크로즈만의독특한음악어법을잘보여준다. 무어 (Stephen Moore) 는달크로즈가수많은작품을작곡할수있었던것은그가뛰어난즉흥연주능력을가지고있었기 고지성 (intelligence) 적영역에속한다. 감정악센트 (pathetic accent) 는표현악센트 (expressive accent) 라고불리어질수도있는데조성, 박자, 리듬의규칙적인진행을깨트리는음을강조하는것을의미하고감정 (sentiment) 적영역에속한다. Mathis Lussy, Musical Expression, Translated by M. E. von Glehn (London: Novello, Ewer and Co., n.d.), 13-16. 20) Stephen Fred Moore, The Writing of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze: toward a Theory for the Performance of Musical Rhythm, (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1992), 32에서재인용. 21) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 111-113.
80 이화음악논집 때문이라고하였는데, 22) 이작품은그가즉흥연주시사용하였을화성어휘를엿볼수있는좋은작품이다. 달크로즈는이작품에서능수능란하게화성을다룸으로써화성진행을통한긴장과이완을자연스럽게유도하고색채감풍부한음색을만들어냈다. 1) 풍부한화성어휘구사 1 이례적화음진행과전위화음의폭넓은사용 i-ii-i-ii/ vi-vii -vi-vii / vii -I-vii -I 등의진행은달크로즈가즐겨사용한화성진행이다. 특히 < 악보 3> 에서나타나는바와같이두개의화음을선택한후그패턴을연속적으로사용하여화음의조합에따라생기는특별한분위기를조성한다. 또한작품전반에걸쳐전위된형태의화음진행이폭넓게사용된것을발견하게된다. 모든곡의도입부화음을살펴보면 1번 (i 6 ), 2번 (I 6 ), 3번 (I), 4번 (I ), 5번 (I 6 ), 6번 (vi ), 7번 (vi ), 8번 (I 6 ), 9번 (I 6 ), 10번 (vii 6 ) 으로 3번을제외하고는다전위화음이사용되었다. 이는달크로즈가아름다운베이스라인을만들어내고화음의변화를통한색채감을효과적으로표현하기위해기본위치보다전위형태를선호한것을단적으로드러낸다. < 악보 3> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 1 번, 마디 5-7. 22) Stephen Fred Moore, The Writing of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze: Toward a Theory for the Performance of Musical Rhythm, 24.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 81 악절을끝맺을때도정격종지 (authentic cadence) 보다불완전종지 (imperfect authentic cadence) 를훨씬선호하는것이발견되는데 < 악보 4> 에서제시된바와같이프레이즈가새로시작됨에도불구하고음악이계속유려하게흘러가는느낌이들도록선율을배치하고, 끝나도끝난것같지않게여운이남는효과를만들어낸다. 또한위장종지 (deceptive cadence) 를사용해서예상치못한음색의변화를유도하기도한다. 예를들어 2번에서는 vii /iii을 I 으로해결하여 7음을계속같은위치에서반복적으로들려줌으로써안정된베이스라인을만들고단3화음대신장3화음을제시하여곡의분위기를전환한다 ( 악보 5). < 악보 4> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 8 번, 마디 3-4. < 악보 5> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 2 번, 마디 13-14. 한편, 동일한선율이반복될때화성어휘를다르게사용하여완전히다른음색을만들어내는것도달크로즈의음악적특징중하나이다. 또
82 이화음악논집 한동형진행패시지에서화음의구성을달리해서반복적인아이디어를사용하지만다른느낌이날수있도록의도적으로변형시킨부분도많이발견된다. 2 다양한비화성음과변화화음의적용달크로즈는다양한비화성음을사용하여화성악센트를주고선율을아름답게장식한다. 특히 3번은비화성음이얼마나매력적으로적용될수있는지를보여주는곡인데, 이곡은다양한부속화음 (V 7 /ⅲ, V 7 /Ⅳ, V 7 /V, V 7 /vi) 을사용해서다장조, 마단조, 가단조, 사장조를넘나들며 V 7 -I의진행만을강조하여다른작품과는비교할수없을정도로단순한화성으로진행된다. 하지만이렇게단순한화성구조안에서매마디마다지속적으로제시되는비화성음들은이곡을매우빛나게만들어준다 ( 악보 6). < 악보 6> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 3 번, 마디 1-4. 6번역시강박에서비화성음을지속적으로사용하고약박에서해결하고있는데, 이러한불협화음들은부딪히는느낌을주기보다오히려감미로운분위기를강화시켜준다 ( 악보 7).
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 83 < 악보 7> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 6 번, 마디 5-8. 또한달크로즈는화음이바뀌는것에상관없이동일음을반복하는기법을즐겨사용했다. 4번의경우 < 악보 8> 에서나타난바와같이도입부에서 I도화음의근음인 솔 을토닉페달 (tonic pedal) 로사용하고 I-(ⅱ)-I-(Ⅳ)-I-(Ⅳ)-I로의진행을보이면서협화음과불협화음이공존한다. 5번의경우에도 I도화음의 3음인 파 # 을토닉페달로사용하면서 I-(vi)-I-vii -I 로진행된다 ( 악보 9). 그런데이경우에는보조음인 솔 도반복적으로사용되고있어불안정한느낌이더욱강화되고 3-4마디의종지는더욱극적인해결을맞이하게된다. < 악보 8> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 4 번, 마디 1-2.
84 이화음악논집 < 악보 9> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 5 번, 마디 1-4. 그외, 단조에서피카르디 3도 (picardy 3rd) 를적용해서장조의성격을빌려오는경우, 반대로장화음을단화음으로변화시켜단조의조성을빌려오는경우, 네아폴리탄화음, 증6화음을포함한변화화음, 반음계진행에의해만들어진증화음등을사용하여색채감이풍부한음악을만들어낸다. 2) 예측불가한조성변화스펙터 (Irwin Spector) 는 달크로즈의노래들 (songs) 에는명랑함, 유머러스한기운, 신선한표현이깃들어있다 23) 고했는데, 이러한특징이 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 에실린 10곡의조성에도반영되어있다. 단조는 1번 ( 라단조 ) 이유일하고나머지 9곡모두장조 ( 다장조 3곡, 사장조 3곡, 라장조 1곡, 가장조 1곡, 바장조 1곡 ) 로이루어져있다. 특히 # 3개, 1개이상의조성을사용하지않은것은어린학생들의수준을고려한교수학적배려로여겨진다. 하지만이작품에서달크로즈는어린이를위한작품들에서흔히발견되는관계조 (relative key) 로의전조대신다양한원격조로의전조를빈번하게사용하였다. < 표 2> 는각곡에서일어난조성변화유형을요약한것인데가장긴곡이 64마디로이루어지고 10곡모두 1-2쪽 24) 분량의짧은소 23) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 22.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 85 품인것을생각해보면달크로즈가전조를통한실험을얼마나다양하게시도했는지알수있게된다. 어떤경우에는이러한실험이너무지나쳐서다소진행이애매한부분이발견되기도한다. 하지만이렇게모호한부분역시예상하지못한독창적전개로음악을펼쳐나간다. < 표 2> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 에서일어나는조성변화유형 작품 조성 1번 d - a - d - C - g - B - d - g - d 2번 G - d - a - b - G - a - b - G 3번 C - e - a - G - C 4번 G - D - G - F - G 5번 D - f# - b - e - D 6번 A - G - e - b - g# - c# - A 7번 G - b - G - D - d - e - a - d - G 8번 C 9번 F - B - F - B -F 10번 C < 표 2> 를살펴보면근친조 (dominant-key) 로의전조를보여주는 9번과전조가일어나지않고다장조로만구성된 8번, 10번을제외하면나머지 7곡모두한조에머물러있는시간이극히짧고지속적으로조성이바뀌는것을관찰할수있다. 하지만 8번, 9번, 10번역시자세히작품을분석해보면단순히처음시작한조성안에머물러있지않음을발견하게된다. 24) 7 번과 9 번만 2 쪽으로구성되고나머지작품은모두 1 쪽으로구성됨.
86 이화음악논집 8번의마디 9에서마디 13까지의부분을살펴보면 G음을중심으로이루어진선율로인해음악을들을때사장조의조성에서화음이진행되고있는듯하나 F# 음이한번도등장하지않아사장조로전조되었다고보기에도애매한진행을보여준다. 하지만마디 13마디에느닷없이 F 음을제시하여작곡가가의도적으로 F# 음을드러내지않고사장조의조성으로선율을진행시킨것으로여겨진다. 또한 < 악보 10> 에서와같이연속적으로부속화음을사용하여화음이바뀔때마다다른조로의전조를유도하면서다장조의조성을느낄수없게비틀고있는것을발견할수있다. < 악보 10> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 8 번, 마디 5-8. 9번과 10번의경우에는부속화음뿐아니라부감7화음 (secondary diminished 7th chord) 을이용한조바꿈현상이작품전체에서지속적으로나타난다. 부속화음과부감7화음은전조가빈번하게일어난다른작품에서도역시즐겨사용되었다. 4번의경우 vii 7 /ii-ii의진행이총 5회사용되어, 부감7화음을통한조성의변화까지포함시키면 < 표 2> 에서제시된 [G D G F G] 의진행은 [G (c a )D G (a ) F G (a ) G (a ) G] 로바뀐다. 부속화음과부감7화음이사용될경우다른조의음색을빌려오면서도해결된것같은안정된분위기를조성할수있어변화를끊임없이추구했던달크
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 87 로즈는이화음들을즐겨사용했다. 또한네아폴리탄화음도전조를위한수단으로즐겨사용했는데, < 악보 11> 에서제시된부분은네아폴리탄화음을사용한전조과정을보여준다. vii 7 -i 의진행이 5도권 (e a d) 으로옮겨가다네아폴리탄화음 (N 5 ) 의등장으로단조에서장조로바뀌고클라이맥스로치닫는과정을포함하고있다. < 악보 11> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 7 번, 마디 29-33. 달크로즈는 화성과리듬의상관관계, 화성과악센트의상관관계를잘이해할수있도록가르쳐야하고선율의전개과정에서발생하는전조를풍부한감정을가지고표현할수있도록가르쳐야한다 25) 고했다. 결국 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 에서적용된다양한화성어휘와전조는달크로즈가학생들에게화성과리듬, 화성과악센트, 화성과선율의상관관계를가르치기위한재료로볼수도있다. 2. 연주자의다양한호흡을유도하는프레이즈 (phrase) 의구성 1) 아나크루식프레이즈 (anacrusic phrase) 달크로즈는 1903 년에출판된뤼시의 근대음악의아나크루시스 (L Anacrouse 25) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, Translated by Harold F. Rubenstein (London: The Dalcroze Society, 1967), 79.
88 이화음악논집 dans la musique moderne) 에수록된아나크루시스 (anacrusis) 26) 관련규칙에큰관심을가졌고, 27) 다양한종류의쉼표와아나크루시스를음악적으로표현할수있도록가르쳐야한다 28) 고강조하였다. 달크로즈가작곡한 어린이와청소년을위한 16개의리듬게임 (16 Rhythmic Games for Children & Young People, 1939) 의첫번째수록곡 < 스케일이살아나다 >(The scale comes to life, 악보 12) 는다양한아나크루식프레이즈의연습을위해달크로즈가작곡한작품이다. 그는 음악에서침묵의순간이소리가나는순간보다더아름다울수있다 29) 고하였는데, 새로운아나크루식프레이즈가시작될때마다숨표 ( ) 를표시해서프레이즈와프레이즈사이에서의음악적인호흡 (breathing) 을강조하였다. 26) 아나크루시스 (anacrusis) 는강박 (downbeat) 전에선행되는음혹은음의그룹을의미하는것으로여린박 (upbeat) 이라는용어가더보편적으로사용된다. 하지만달크로즈교수법에서는리듬의조합에따라달라지는아나크루시스의성질을이해하고아나크루식프레이즈를음악적인타이밍으로호흡하고느끼는과정을매우중시하여여린박 (upbeat) 이라는용어보다아나크루시스를부각시켜사용한다. 또한, 일반적으로사용되는강박 (downbeat) 이라는용어대신크루시스 (crusis) 가통용된다. 따라서달크로즈수업시간에는강박에서시작되는프레이즈는크루식프레이즈 (crusic phrase), 약박에서시작되는프레이즈는아나크루식프레이즈 (anacrusic phrase) 로구분한다. 따라서본연구에서는강박, 여린박대신아나크루시스, 크루시스로달크로즈교수법에서통용되는용어로표기를통일한다. 27) Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life: The work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 101. 28) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, 79. 29) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, 87.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 89 < 악보 12> 어린이와청소년을위한 16 개의리듬게임 중 < 스케일이살아나다 >, 마디 1-7. 이렇게아나크루식프레이즈를음악적으로표현하는것을중시하였던달크로즈의교수철학은 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 에서도고스란히드러나고있다. 달크로즈의아나크루식프레이즈실험은지나치다싶을정도로다양한양상으로작품속에서나타난다. 2 번 ( ) 과 3번 ( ) 만이처음부터끝까지통일된형태의아나크루식프레이즈로구성되어있고가장다양한형태로아나크루식프레이즈를실험한 4번의경우 7가지의리듬패턴이아나크루식프레이즈에등장한다. 유일하게크루식프레이즈로작곡된 10번의경우에도 8분쉼표뒤에등장하는셋잇단음표 ( ) 가그다음박을강조하는역할을하고있어크루식프레이즈속에아나크루식프레이즈의성질을내포하고있다 ( 악보 13).
90 이화음악논집 < 악보 13> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 10 번, 마디 22-23. 각곡에서아나크루식프레이즈구성을위해사용된리듬은 < 표 3> 과같다. < 표 3> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 의각곡에서아나크루식프레이즈구성을위해사용된리듬 작품 아나크루식프레이즈구성을위해사용된리듬 1 번 6 번 2 번 7 번 3 번 8 번 4 번 9 번 5 번 10 번 없음 달크로즈는 음악적인프레이즈의구성에있어선율의진행뿐아니라리듬의조화로운사용이매우중요하고, 특히아나크루시스 (anacrusis)
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 91 가리듬에미치는영향을이해하는것은음악적인프레이즈해석에매우중요하다 30) 고강조하였는데, 미묘한리듬의변화로일어나는에너지의변화를느끼고음악적인호흡을사용해서아름답게표현하는것은이곡을연주하는이들에게매우까다로운과제로주어진다. 2) 다양한길이의프레이즈달크로즈는 곡전체에걸쳐균등한길이 (regular bar-lengths) 로프레이즈를일관되게유지해야하는아무런이유도없다. 불균등한길이 (irregular bar-lengths) 의프레이즈로작곡된많은민요 (folk songs) 들을관찰해보라. 균등한프레이즈구성으로이루어진구조적인작품의구성은정통클래식음악에서지난 2, 3세기동안유행했던관습에불과하다 31) 라고말하면서다양한호흡을끌어내는프레이즈구성의중요성을역설하였다. 이러한그의생각은이작품에서도제대로녹아있다. < 표 4> 를살펴보면각곡의마디수가표기되어있는데 4마디프레이즈를기준으로관찰해볼때그조합을균형있게나눌수있는작품은 3번, 7번, 그리고 9번밖에없다. 하지만이작품들도들여다보면 < 악보 14> 에서제시된슈만 (Robert Schumann, 1810-1856) 의작품처럼처음부터끝까지 4마디프레이즈를유지하면서전개되지는않는다. 30) 달크로즈는 아나크루시스에대한이해를강조하면서뤼시 (Mathis Lussy) 가쓴 근대음악의아나크루시스 (L Anacrouse dans la musique moderne) 를모든음악가들이다읽어봐야한다 고역설했다. Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, 86. 31) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, 85.
92 이화음악논집 < 표 4> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 에수록된작품의마디수비교 작품 1 번 2 번 3 번 4 번 5 번 6 번 7 번 8 번 9 번 10 번 마디수 34 35 24 19 31 33 36 25 64 26 < 악보 14> 슈만, 어린이를위한앨범 (Album for the Young) Op.68 중 2 번 < 병사의행진 >(Soldier s March), 마디 1-8. 그렇다고이작품집에균등한길이로구성된프레이즈가안나타나는것은아니다. 예를들어 2번의경우 4마디의프레이즈가 1마디부터 16 마디까지왼손과오른손에서주제선율이번갈아제시되면서매우균형있게제시된다. 하지만 < 표 5> 에서제시된바와같이 16마디부터는이전과는다른조합으로프레이즈를형성하고결국에는이곡의가장특징적인아나크루식프레이즈대신크루식프레이즈로구성된 3마디의코데타가나오면서종결된다. 또한슈만의작품이동일한리듬패턴을기초로오른손에서주선율이초지일관 4마디를한호흡으로제시된것과는달리, 주선율이왼손과오른손에서번갈아가면서나타나고각프레이즈안에서동기의구성도다양하게나타난다.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 93 < 표 5> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 2 번의프레이즈구성분석 형식구분마디구분프레이즈구성선율제시형태 A m. 1 - m. 16 4(2+1+1)+4(2+1+1)+4(2+1+1) +4(2+1+1) 아나크루식프레이즈 4( 왼손 )+4( 오른손 )+ 4( 왼손 )+4( 오른손 ) B m. 17 - m. 32 8(2+2+1+1+2)+4(2+1+1)+ 4(2+1+1) 아나크루식프레이즈 8( 왼손 2+ 오른손 2+ 왼손 1+ 왼손 1+ 왼손 2)+ 4( 오른손 )+4( 오른손 ) Codetta m. 33 - m. 35 3 크루식프레이즈 3( 오른손 ) 그리고악보상에있는이음줄이프레이즈의시작과끝을의미하지않는경우가대부분이어서프레이즈의시작과끝이어디인지를구별하고프레이즈를음악적으로표현하는것은연주자의몫으로넘겨진다. 3) 오른손과왼손에서불일치하는프레이즈마침달크로즈는 학생들이리듬, 템포, 뉘앙스, 프레이즈, 음색의변화를양손이독립적으로표현할수있도록가르쳐야한다 32) 고하였는데, 이작품곳곳에서오른손과왼손의프레이즈가일치하지않아음악적으로연주하기에까다로운부분을발견하게된다. 특히앞서제시된 < 악보 7> 의경우왼손과오른손의프레이즈가일치하지않는것은물론이고오른손안에서도소프라노와알토의리듬이상이하고왼손에서도테너와베이스를구별하여다른리듬을제시하여마치 4성부곡에성부마다다른형태의프레이즈가포진하고있는듯하다. 이러한음형들은달크 32) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, 78.
94 이화음악논집 로즈가의도적으로양손의독립적인움직임을훈련시키기위해삽입한것으로여겨진다. 4) 반복과대조가창의적으로적용된프레이즈구성달크로즈는 반복과대조를효과적으로사용해야음악적인프레이즈를구성할수있다 33) 고하였는데동일한선율프레이즈에여러음악적요소를변화시켜적용함으로써같은선율을다른느낌으로변화시키고예상치못한음색을야기한다. 달크로즈는동일한선율에다른화성을적용하거나리듬을변형시켜다른분위기를유도하면서다양한화성악센트, 선율악센트, 리듬악센트를실험하였다. 한편, 동일한선율을음역을바꿔제시하거나, 반주유형을달리해서변화를주는기법도다양하게발견된다. 이렇게여러음악적요소를변화시켜프레이즈가흥미롭게진행될수있도록달크로즈는끊임없이창의적인시도를하였다. 3. 뉘앙스 (nuance) 의섬세한표현 달크로즈는 자신의소리를잘구별해서듣고 (hearing) 음악적인터치 (touch) 로연주할수있도록가르쳐야한다 34) 고말하였는데이는뉘앙스의차이를예민하게구별해서듣고표현하는것의중요성을강조한것이라할수있다. 하지만선율, 리듬, 화성의조합에의해생기는악센트를찾아내고음악적으로음영의차이를주면서뉘앙스의변화를표현하는것이쉬운일은아니다. 그래서달크로즈는학생들이뉘앙스의차이를표현하는훈련을할수있도록한곡안에서대조적인음악요소를반복적으로제시하여하나의주제를집중적으로훈련할수있는작품을작곡하기도했다. 33) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, 87. 34) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, & Education, 79.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 95 예를들어 10번은질문과응답프레이즈의강약을 < 악보 15> 와같이대조적으로제시하여셈여림의차이에따른뉘앙스의변화를학생들이경험할수있도록작곡된곡이다. 그리고 9번은 A부분과 B부분의리듬패턴을다르게제시하여대조적인아티큘레이션을학생들이집중적으로연습하면서아티큘레이션의차이에따른뉘앙스의변화를공부할수있는기회를제공한다 ( 악보 16-1/2). < 악보 15> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 10 번, 마디 1-4. < 악보 16-1> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 9 번, 마디 1-4. < 악보 16-2> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 9 번, 마디 24-28.
96 이화음악논집 하지만모든곡이이렇게집중적으로한가지주제에집중해서뉘앙스의표현을연습할수있도록작곡되어있지는않다. 연주자는악보의상징속에숨겨진달크로즈의음악어법을찾아내고어떻게음악적으로표현해야하는지연구해야한다. < 표 6> 은달크로즈가그의책 음계와조성, 프레이즈와뉘앙스 에서뉘앙스, 프레이징, 악센트규칙과관련해서수록한내용을 < 악보 17> 에서제시된패시지에대입하여그의생각이어떻게음악적상징으로표현되었는지비교한내용이다. < 악보 17> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 2 번, 마디 22-25. < 표 6> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 중 2 번, 마디 21-25 에서발견되는달크로즈의교수학적아이디어 구분 달크로즈가제시한뉘앙스, 프레이징, 악센트관련규칙 35) 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 악보에숨겨진달크로즈의교수학적아이디어 뉘앙스규칙 모든상행선율은크레셴도 (crescendo), 하행선율은디미누엔도 (diminuendo) 로표현한다 (N1). 동일한음이여러번반복될때크레셴도로표현한다 (N4). 반복되는음들로구성된패시지후에처음에제시된선율이다시나오면크레셴도와랄렌탄도 (rallentando) 를동시에표 마디 22-24 에서왼손은토닉페달로 솔 음을계속유지하면서반음계에기초한상행선율 (F-F#-A -A-A#-B) 을제시한다. 그리고마침내마디 25 에서주제선율이다시재현되는데달크로즈는이패시지에서크레셴도와리테누토 (ritenuto) 를표시하여상행선율의긴장된
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 97 구분 달크로즈가제시한뉘앙스, 프레이징, 악센트관련규칙 35) 현한다 (N5). 주제선율로돌아가기위해준비하는패시지에서는랄렌탄도를적용한다 (N7). 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 악보에숨겨진달크로즈의교수학적아이디어 분위기와주제선율의극적인재현을유도한다. 프레이징규칙 리듬과선율패턴이두번반복되면다른뉘앙스로표현한다 (N6). 음형, 종지, 프레이즈의마지막음은쉼표, 호흡, 혹은짧은정지 (pause) 가뒤따른다 (P2). 아나크루시스를형성하는멜로디나리듬, 음표그룹이멜로디안에서되풀이되면그앞에서쉼을해야할필요가있다 (P7). 종지 (cadence) 의느낌을가진프레이즈의마지막음뒤에는호흡을한다 (P11). 리듬패턴이반복되면반복하기전에약간의쉼을준다 (P1). 음이반복되면반복하기전에약간의쉼을준다 (P4). 마디 21 의왼손의모티브가마디 22 에서반복될때 mf 와 p 로상이한셈여림을제시하여섬세한뉘앙스의표현을유도한다. 왼손에서아나크루식프레이즈 (2+2+4) 의형태로이음줄을표시하고항상 로선율을마무리하여자연스러운프레이즈의마무리와호흡을유도한다. 마디 20 과 21 의오른손에서팔분음표연속리듬패턴이나오기전에사분쉼표를제시함으로써자연스러운프레이즈의마무리와호흡을유도한다. 마디 22-24에서토닉페달 솔 음을반복하면서부점리듬 ( ) 을연속적으로제시할때한박단위로이음줄을표시하여음악적인호흡유도한다. 좁은음정간격으로제시되다가큰음정간격 (5 도혹은 6 도 ) 의진행이나타나면, 도약음정을연주할때호흡을한다 (P5). 마디 22 부터마디 24 에서 i- ⅶ - i 의진행을기초로비화성음을사용하여반음계로상행선율을만든후프레이즈를마무리하고, 마디 25 에서 N 화음에기초한 6 도도약음정이오른손에서나타나면서극적
98 이화음악논집 구분 달크로즈가제시한뉘앙스, 프레이징, 악센트관련규칙 35) 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 악보에숨겨진달크로즈의교수학적아이디어 으로주제가재현된다. 이때크레셴도와 f 의셈여림을표시하여음악적인호흡을유도한다. 약박에위치하더라도프레이즈의첫번째음에는악센트를준다 (A2). 마디 21, 22, 23 에서약박에서프레이즈가시작하는데매번이음줄로아나크루식프레이즈를표시하여약박이지만첫음을강조해서연주하도록유도한다. 악센트규칙 쉼표다음에나오는음에는악센트를준다 (A3). 약박에위치하더라도비화성음은약간의악센트를준다 (A6). 마디 20 과 21 에서팔분음표연속리듬패턴이나오기전에 4 분쉼표를제시함으로써강박을더강조해서연주하도록유도한다. 마디 22 의 F 은약박에제시된비화성음이다. 하지만반음계적으로선율을진행시킴으로써그음을소홀히다룰수없게유도하고있다. 캠프 (Max W. Camp) 는 음악적이해 (musical understanding) 란작곡가가구조안에서소리를창작하기위해어떻게음악적요소를배열했는가를이해하는능력이다 36) 라고하였다. < 표 6> 은달크로즈가가지고 35) Irwin Spector는그의저서 Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, 111-113에서달크로즈가 Les Gammes et les Tonalités, le Phrasé et la Nuancés에서제시한악센트관련규칙 7개, 프레이징관련규칙 14개, 뉘앙스관련규칙 13개의내용을요약하여제시하였다. < 표 6> 에서제시된규칙은그내용을근거로인용된것이며 N1 은뉘앙스관련규칙 1번, P2 는프레이징관련규칙 2번, 그리고 A3 은악센트관련규칙 3번을의미한다. 36) 막스캠프 (Max W. Camp)/ 안미자역, 피아노연주법 : 교수법철학 ( 서울 : 이화여자
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 99 있었던뉘앙스, 프레이징, 악센트에대한교수철학이악보에서어떻게구현되었는가를분석한내용을담고있다. 악보에제시된각음들은여러음악적요소가배합되면서의미를가지게된다. 달크로즈는악보에그의생각을매우세밀하게표시하였고각상징들에는그가가진교수학적아이디어가내포되어있다. 그러므로연주자들은악보속에담긴달크로즈의숨은의도를 < 표 6> 에서제시된것과같이찾아낼수있어야한다. 이렇게악보를보고작곡가의생각을좇아가는과정을통해학생들은각음이가지는의미를이해하게된다. 또한이러한활동을통해귀로음색의차이를구별해서들을수있게되고, 마침내각음들에생명력을불어넣어입체적인음색으로작품을연주할수있게된다. 따라서연주자가악보의상징뒤에내재된달크로즈의음악어법을발견하는것은뉘앙스의섬세한표현을위해간과될수없는과제로주어진다. Ⅳ. 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 활용을위한제언 Ⅰ장에서언급한바와같이이작품은달크로즈의즉흥연주수업을듣는학생들에게헌정된곡이다. 그래서인지 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 에는중급수준의일반적인피아노작품에서나타나는화성진행이나전조형태보다훨씬난해한내용을포함하고학생들이알아야하는화성학이론이다양하게적용되어있다. 하지만복잡한피아노테크닉을요구하는곡은없고선율이아름다워화성의울림에집중할수있도록만들어준다. 따라서각곡에서두드러지게사용된화성어휘나전조과정을집중적으로공부해보는것은화성학책에나오는 대학교, 1995), 25.
100 이화음악논집 주요이론들을피아노곡을통해서익힐수있는기회를제공한다. 이러한과정을통해학생들은자신이연주하는소리에귀를기울이면서좋은청음능력을개발할수있게되고더나아가서는표현력있는연주도할수있게된다. 달크로즈에게있어서화성은팔레트에있는물감과같은도구였는데, 학생들은이작품에나타나는화성어휘를공부하면서색채감풍부한음색을경험하게된다. 또한이작품에서적용된다양한프레이즈의구성은음악적인호흡훈련을위해아주유용한자료로활용될수있다. 달크로즈는그의저서 리듬, 음악, 교육 (Rhythm, Music & Education) 에서교수법의 3대영역인유리드믹스, 솔페즈, 즉흥연주를지도할때가르쳐야하는지도내용을제시한다. 그런데모든지도내용에호흡에관련된활동이포함되어있다. 달크로즈는이작품에서의도적으로각곡마다다른형태의아나크루식프레이즈를제시하여학생들이음악적인호흡을경험할수있도록한것같다. 학생들이 10곡에서다양한형태로나타난프레이즈의구성에집중하여공부하게될때 1) 프레이즈의시작과끝을구별하는이성적활동, 2) 음악적인호흡을위한육체적활동, 3) 프레이즈내에서의셈여림의변화에따른뉘앙스의변화를표현하기위한감정적활동을경험할수있게된다. 그리고선율, 리듬, 화성의다양한조합에따라만들어지는다양한악센트를구별해서연주할수있도록달크로즈가악보에표기해놓은셈여림, 템포, 아티큘레이션관련표기들은섬세한뉘앙스의변화를음악적으로표현하는연습에매우효과적인재료로사용될수있다. 달크로즈는교사로서학생들을가르치면서음악해석, 음악표현, 혹은음악창작을위해악센트, 프레이징, 뉘앙스관련규칙을정리하였고그의작품에는이러한규칙들이반영되어있다. 따라서악보에그려져있는상징이면에숨어있는달크로즈의작곡의도를찾아내는작업은그가학생들에게가르치고자했던음악표현에관련된규칙들을찾아내는과정
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 101 이되고이과정을통해학생들은독립적으로음악을해석하고표현할수있는능력을갖추게된다. 한편, 주로오른손이선율을담당하고왼손이반주를담당하는일반적인호모포니 (homophony) 음악과는달리오른손과왼손에서번갈아가면서주선율이등장하고, 양손에서동일한프레이즈, 리듬, 아티큘레이션을적용하기보다는상이한형태로제시된이작품은연주자들이양손의독립된움직임을훈련하면서섬세한뉘앙스의표현을익힐수있는다양한예제곡을포함하고있다. 달크로즈는 음악이론그자체를배우는것이목적이되기보다과정을통한결과로서음악이론을이해할수있어야한다 37) 고하였다. 달크로즈가자신의즉흥연주수업을듣는학생들을위하여 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 을작곡한것은학생들이피아노를배우는과정을통해음악이론을이해하기원했던그의교수철학을드러낸것이라보여진다. 달크로즈의할레라우학교에서의수업을회고한글을쓴잉햄 (Ethel Ingham) 은달크로즈의즉흥연주수업에대해다음과같이말한다. 그의수업은가장단순한코드진행 (I-V) 을기초로 8마디의짧은곡을모든조에서즉흥연주하는것으로시작되었다. 이코드진행을학생들이주저함없이연주하게되면화성어휘를하나씩늘려갔고경과음, 전타음, 다양한종지유형, 전조등더복잡한내용들을추가했다. 그의즉흥연주수업은일주일에 2회씩이루어졌고 1회수업에 6명이상은수강하지못하도록하였다. 38) 위의내용은달크로즈의즉흥연주수업이매우체계적으로이루어졌음을보여준다. 따라서그의즉흥연주수업을듣는학생들을위해작곡 37) Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Eurhythmics, Art, and Education, Translated by Frederick Rothwell (New York: Arno Press, 1976), 121. 38) Emile Jacques-Dalcroze & Michael T. H. Sadler, The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze (Illustrated Edition) (Milton Keynes: Dodo Press, 2008), 39.
102 이화음악논집 된 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 은각곡마다학생들이즉흥연주수업에서익혀야할즉흥연주의주제들을생각하며작곡되었을것으로유추되고, 달크로즈는이곡을연주하는학생들이그내용들을이해하고연주하기를원했으리라여겨진다. 실험정신이강했던달크로즈는여러음악요소들을창의적으로조합하여예상하지못한방향으로음악을끌고갈때가많다. 이러한다양한변화를추적해가며공부하는것은흥미로운작업이다. 하지만어떤곡은다른요소들에비해특정교수학적아이디어가두드러지고일정한규칙을가지고반복적으로제시되는작품도있다. 예를들어왼손과오른손에서번갈아가면서주제선율이나오는 2번, 다양한비화성음과부속화음을포함한 3번, 형식의변화에따라구별되는아티큘레이션을적용한 9번, 셈여림의대조가극명한 10번은특정주제가부각되는작품들이라할수있다. 이러한경우그내용을학습주제로삼고집중적으로그주제를발전시켜학생들이공부할수있도록하면, 학생들은그개념에대한확실한이해를바탕으로음악적인연주를할수있게될것이다. 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 을학습하는과정에서여러가지개념을이해하고학습하는것이요구되겠지만즉흥연주수업의주제로활용될수있는내용들을요약하면 < 표 7> 과같이나타난다. 주요3화음, 부3화음을이용한일반적인진행과화음의전위, 종지는모든곡에서다루어졌기때문에 < 표 7> 에서그내용은포함하지않았다. < 표 7> 어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 에서발견된즉흥연주수업을위한주제 구분내용구분내용 1 번 i-ⅱ-i-ⅱ 의연속적진행 부감 7 화음 (vii 7 /Ⅲ) 을포함한 vii 7 -I 의다양한진행 6 번 부감 7 화음 (vii 7 /ⅱ, vii 7 /Ⅳ) 을포함한 vii 7 -I 의다양한진행 부속화음 (V 7 /ⅱ, V 7 /V) 을포함한
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 103 구분내용구분내용 N 5 화음을통한전조 토닉페달 피카르디 3 도 전조 : d - a - d - C - g - B - d - g - d 2/4박자에서을사용한아나크루식프레이즈 주제선율의 5도권동형진행 변박자를이용한프레이즈의확장 모티브의다양한변형 V-I의다양한진행 비화성음을이용한토닉악센트 토닉페달 전조 : A - G - e - b - g# - c# - A 3/4박자에서을사용한아나크루식프레이즈 모티브의반복을이용한코다 2 번 부감7 화음 (vii 7 /ⅲ) 을포함한 vii 7-I의다양한진행 부속화음 (V 7 /ⅱ, V 7 /V, V 7 /vi) 을포함한 V-I의다양한진행 차용화음 위장종지 (vii /iii -> I ) N 5 화음을통한전조 전조 : G - d - a - b - G - a - b - G 7 번 부속화음 (V 7 /Ⅳ, V 7 /V, V 7 /vi) 을포함한 V-I 의다양한진행 토닉페달 N 5 화음을통한전조 vii 7 -i 의 5 도권동형진행을통한전조 전조 : G - b - G - D - d - e - a - d - G 3/4박자에서리듬을사용한규칙적아나크루식프레이즈 모티브의반복을통한동형진행 오른손과왼손에서번갈아가며나타나는주제선율 6/8박자에서을사용한아나크루식프레이즈 반종지를이용한도입부작곡기법 프레이즈의음악적인표현을돕는셈여림 3 번 부속화음 (V 7 /ⅲ, V 7 /Ⅳ, V 7 /V, V 7 /vi) 을포함한 V-I 의다양한진행 비화성음을이용한토닉악센트 전조 : C - e - a - G - C 8 번 연속적부속화음의사용 (V/a V/d V/G V/C) 부속화음 (V 7 /ⅱ, V 7 /Ⅳ, V 7 /vi) 을포함한 V-I 의다양한진행 증 6 화음 (It.6 화음 ) 관계조로의전조 : C-G-C
104 이화음악논집 구분내용구분내용 2/4박자에서을사용하여일관되게진행되는아나크루식프레이즈 셈여림의대조 쉼표를넘어서는긴프레이즈의표현 왼손과오른손사이에서나타나는보충리듬 (complementary rhythm) 4/4 박자에서 을사용한아나크루식프레이즈 4 번 토닉페달 부감 7 화음 (vii 7 /ⅱ) 을포함한 vii 7 -I 의다양한진행 부속화음 (V 7 /ⅱ, V 7 /Ⅳ, V 7 /V) 을포함한 V-I 의다양한진행 전조 : G - D - G - F - G 4/4 박자에서 9 번 부감 7 화음 (vii 7 /V, vii 7 /vi) 을포함한 vii 7 -I 의다양한진행 부속화음 (V 7 /ⅱ, V 7 /V, V 7 /vi) 을포함한 V-I 의다양한진행 N 화음 관계조로의전조 : F - B - F - B -F 아티큘레이션의대조를통한 ABA 형식 을사용한아나크루식프레이즈 4/4박자에서을사용한아나크루식프레이즈 가보트 (gavotte) 리듬패턴 모티브의반복을통한음악적인전개 5 번 부속화음 (V 7 /V, V 7 /vi) 을포함한 V-I 의다양한진행 vii 7 -I 을이용한종지 토닉페달 차용화음 전조 : D - f# - b - e - D 2/4 박자에서 을사용한아나크루식프레이즈 10 번 부감 7 화음 (vii 7 /Ⅳ, vii 7 /V) 을포함한 vii 7 -I 의다양한진행 부속화음 (V 7 /ⅱ, V 7 /Ⅳ, V 7 /V, V 7 /vi) 을포함한 V-I 의다양한진행 4/4 박자크루식프레이즈 셈여림의대조 대조적인모티브를사용한질문 응답프레이즈
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 105 구분내용구분내용 동일한리듬모티브의 5 도권동형진행 모티브의반복을이용한코다 레빈 (Josef Lhevinne) 은 너무나많은학생들이악보의검은음들을기억하려는노력으로많은시간을낭비한다. 그것은어리석은일이다! 검은음들은아무런의미가없다. 작곡가의아이디어인사고력을이해하라. 바로그사고력이검은음들이의미를갖도록하는것이다 39) 라고하였다. 많은학생들이이론수업에서배운지식을실제연주에서적용하지못하고악보의검은음들을아무생각없이반복적인연습을통해암기하느라고통을당한다. 하지만 < 표 7> 에서제시된것처럼학생들이각곡에서다루어진음악개념들을이해하면서연주할수있게되면악보속에있는음들의상관관계를파악할수있게되고, 패턴읽기를통한초견이가능해진다. 또한악보를읽는순간부터분석적암기도할수있게되고음악속에담긴개념들을활용해서즉흥연주도할수있게될것이라기대한다. Ⅴ. 나가는말 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 분석결과당대의유명한작곡가들부터전통적인작곡교육을받고즉흥연주의대가였던달크로즈는화성사용에있어거침이없었다. 그리고뤼시의음악표현규칙에지대한영향을받은달크로즈는음악적표현에대한많은고민을한 39) 보리스베르만 (Boris Berman) / 김혜선역, 피아노연주법 ( 서울 : 도서출판다리, 2004), 151에서재인용.
106 이화음악논집 흔적을작품속에서드러내고있다. 본연구에서이루어진분석과제언은음악이론가의시각이아닌연주자그리고피아노교사의시각에서작품을바라보며이루어졌다. 슬랜진스커 (Ruth Slenczynska) 는 우리는첫번째교습의첫번째악보부터시작하여모든음악적생애를통하여모든소리를의미있게만드는것을목표로삼아야한다 40) 라고하였다. 처음음악에입문하는학생부터성인연주자에이르기까지모든사람들이악보의모든상징들에의미를부여하며연주할수있는능력을갖추기위해서는달크로즈가추구한 연주과정에서저절로이론을학습하는교육 이초급부터고급수준까지지속적으로이루어져야할것이다. 하지만음악대학에서수많은이론수업을들음에도불구하고많은피아니스트들은그들의연주에서수업에서배운이론적지식을활용하지않는다. 달크로즈는이러한문제점을인식하고이론적지식을음악적표현에적극적으로활용하는방법에대해깊이고민한사람이었다. 작곡가뿐아니라교사로서의시각도가지고있었던그의작품에는학생들의교육을위한많은교수학적아이디어가담겨있었고선율, 리듬, 화성의창의적인조합을통해그만의독특한음색을만들어냈다. 본연구는 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 의분석을통해나타난달크로즈의음악어법을제시하면서작곡가달크로즈를이해할수있는정보를제공한다. 주어진정보는이곡을연주하는연주자들, 혹은가르치는교사들에게음악해석의근거로활용될수있다. 더나아가서는새로운레퍼토리를탐색하고교수학적필요에의해작곡을고민하고있는연구자들에게도유익한정보를줄것이라여겨진다. 마지막으로본연구는국내에서전혀다루어지지않았던달크로즈피아노작품관련연구의시발점이되리라생각된다. 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡 이달크로즈의화성, 프레이즈, 뉘앙스와관련 40) 루스슬렌진스커 (Ruth Slenczynska) / 손국임역, 피아노음악의창조 : 입문에서연주까지 ( 서울 : 음악춘추사, 1981), 21.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 107 된창의적실험을살펴볼수있는작품이라면 1910년대이후작곡된많은작품들은리듬학습을위한많은아이디어를포함하고있다. 따라서본연구를기점으로달크로즈피아노작품에대한후속연구가더욱심도있게진행되어그의작품이더다양한용도로사용되어지길기대한다. 주제어달크로즈, 어린피아니스트를위한 10개의모음곡, 피아노작품, 음악어법, 교수학적아이디어 Dalcroze, Dix Miniatures pour Jeunes Pianistes, piano works, musical grammar, pedagogical ideas
108 이화음악논집 참고문헌 베르만, 보리스 (Berman, Boris)/ 김혜선역. 피아노연주법 (Notes from the Pianist s Bench). 서울 : 도서출판다리, 2004. 캠프, 맥스 W.(Camp, Max W.)/ 안미자역. 피아노연주법 : 교수법철학 (Developing Piano Performance: A Teaching Philosophy). 서울 : 이화여자대학교, 1995. 슬렌진스커, 루스 (Slenczynska, Ruth)/ 손국임역, 피아노음악의창조 : 입문에서연주까지 (Music at Your Fingertips: Advice for the Artist and Amateur on Playing the Piano). 서울 : 음악춘추사, 1981. Hinson, Maurice. Guide to the Pianist s Repertoire Second Revised Edition. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994. Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile. 20 Caprices & Rhythmic Studies. London: Augener Ltd, 1920.. Concert D enfants. Paris: Sandoz, Jobin, 1907.. Dix Miniatures pour Jeunes Pianistes. Lausanne: Édition Foetisch, 1958.. Eurhythmics, Art, and Education. Translated by Frederick Rothwell. New York: Arno Press, 1976.. Impressions Fugitives: 40 Petites Pièces pour Piano. Genève: Editions Papillon, 2000.. Rhythm, Music, & Education. Translated by Harold F. Rubenstein. London: The Dalcroze Society, 1967.. Six Danses Bigarrées pour Piano. Genève: Editions Papillon, 1999.. Sixteen Rhythmic Games (Jeux & Rondes Rhythmiques) for Children & Young People. London: Augener Ltd, 1939.. Vol 1: Chant et Piano GALL CD-1039. Lausanne: Disques VDE-Gallo, 2000.. Vol Ⅱ: Musique de Chambre Ensemble Stanislas
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 109 GALL CD-1040. Lausanne: Disques VDE-Gallo, 1999. Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile & Sadler, Michael T. H. The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze (Illustrated Edition). Milton Keynes: Dodo Press, 2008. Lussy, Mathis. Musical Expression. Translated by M. E. von Glehn. London: Novello, Ewer and Co., n.d. Moore, Stephen Fred. The Writings of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze: Toward a Theory for the Performance of Musical Rhythm. Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1992. Spector, Irwin. Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1990. Tchamkerten, Jacques. Catalogue de l Œuvre Musical de Emile Jaques- Dalcroze. Genève: Institut Jaques-Dalcroze, 1995.. Emile Jaques-Dalcroze Compositeur. Genève: Bibliotheque de Genève & La Baconnière, 2014.
110 이화음악논집 Abstract Dalcroze s Musical Grammar and Pedagogical Ideas through the Analysis of His Dix Miniatures pour Jeunes Pianistes Seungji Ryu Dalcroze, one of the greatest music educators in the 20th century, composed a huge number of piano pieces for educational purposes. There is, however, nothing much known about his activities and status as a composer. Written in 1906 and 1907, his Dix Miniatures pour Jeunes Pianistes was dedicated to the students in my improvisation class. It is a very good piece to understand his musical grammar as a composer. This study thus set out to analyze his Dix Miniatures pour Jeunes Pianistes, thus creating an opportunity to renew the perceptions of Dalcroze as a composer rather than an educator and examining how he reflected his ideas as a music educator in his works. The findings were as follows: his work turned out to show the harmonious vocabulary of rich color sensations and unpredictable tonality changes, present a phrase composition to induce the player s breathing in various fashions, and contain delicate expressions of nuances. Those bits of musical content came from his instructional ideas. Players or teachers can use the information provided in the present study as a ground for musical interpretations. It can be also prove useful to the people that are in search for new repertoires for instructional needs. Furthermore, the present study will mark the beginning of research conducted on Dalcroze s piano works that have not been covered in the nation.
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 111 부록. 달크로즈피아노작품목록 41) 작곡년도 작품명 1885 Gavotte 1885 Impromptu 1885 Intermezzo pour piano 1885 Réveil d oiseaux 1885 Valse pour piano 1888 Fantaisie-scherzo 1888 Menuet héroïque 1888 Novelette 1888 Prélude et rondo 1889 Ballabile 1889 Valse 1890 Enfantines Op. 10 1890 Deux feuillets d album Op. 7 1890 Nocturne 1890 Skizzen (Esquisses) Op. 10 1894 Canzonetta Op. 11 1894 Sept petites pièces pour piano 1895 Valse des mouettes Op. 1 1896 Trois morceaux pour piano Op. 45 1896 Polka enharmonique Op.47 1899 Six danses romandes 1903 Six miniatures pour piano Op. 5 1903 Sonatine en sol majeur pour piano Op. 11 41) 부록으로제시된달크로즈의피아노작품목록은창케르텅이 Catalogue de l Œuvre Musical de Emile Jaques-Dalcroze에서제시한피아노작품목록을토대로연도순으로재정렬한것이다.
112 이화음악논집 작곡년도 작품명 1905 Six bagatelles pour piano Op. 67 1905 Danse romande pour piano à quatre mains Op. 68 1905 6 Jugendblätter für klavier 1905 Six petites pièces pour piano Op. 59 1905 Sonatine en sol majeur pour piano (Concert d enfants no. II) 1910 Les danaides 1910 12 Danses pour piano 1910 Drei jugendspiele für pianoforte 1911 Drei kleine tänze für pianoforte 1911 Six morceaux mélodiques et instructifs pour pianoforte 1913 12 kleine melodische und rythmische Studien 1914 Four characteristic dances 1914 Sept danses rythmique pour piano (Seven rhythmic dances) 1914 14 marches [recueil artificiel] 1919 Rythmes de danse, vingt-quatre pièces brèves en deux suites pour piano 1923 Danse des lavandières 1923 50 ètudes miniatures de métrique et rythmique écrites pour le piano 1924 Echos du dancing 1924 Trois entrées dansantes pour piano 1924 Musiques pour faire danser 1924 Rythmes délaissés 1925 Six jeux rythmiques pour enfants et adolescents 1928 Douze petites images pour enfants, recueil pour piano 1929 Caprice 1930 Le jardin d enfants, 24 petits jeux rythmiques pour piano. 1931 Les vieux de la vieille, pas redoublé pour piano
어린피아니스트를위한 10 개의모음곡 분석을통해발견한달크로즈의음악어법과교수학적아이디어 113 작곡년도 작품명 1932 Trente-deux musiques en zigzags 1933 Trois rondeaux joyeux pour la danse (pour piano seul) 1935 Figurines portraits et caractères 1935 Musiques en zigzags, 12 petites pièces mélodiques et rythmiques 1937 Six danses bigarées 1937 Pour leurs petits doigts, 8 (huit) pièces expressives pour piano 1939 Sixteen rhythmic games (Jeux et rondes rythmiques) 1940 Impressions fugitives, 40 petites pièces pour piano 1940 Petites musiques pour les tous petits, 16 miniatures pour piano en clé de sol 1883-1890 Dix-neuf pièces pour piano [titre artificiel] 1890-1892 Impromptu-scherzetto Op. 3 1890-1892 Valse badine Op. 4 1893-1894 Trois pièces mignonnes pour piano Op. 12 1894-1896 Trois morceaux pour piano Op. 46 1895-1898 Menuet Op. 17 1905-1906 Trois bluttes pour piano à 4mains(Concert d enfants no. ⅩⅥ) 1905-1907 Fantaisie-ballet pour piano à 4 mains (Concert d enfants no. XX) 1905-1907 Six petites danses très faciles pour piano à quatre mains (Concert d enfants no. V) 1905-1907 Trois pièces pour piano (Concert d enfants no. XXI) 1906-1907 Dix miniatures pour piano (Concert d enfants no. XII) 1908-1910 Lutte et délivrance 1910-1913 16 Plastiche studien, skizzen für mimische darstellunge für klavier 1910-1914 Cascades 1910-1914 Danse nocturne 1910-1914 Remords 1916-1925 Esquisses rythmiques
114 이화음악논집 작곡년도 작품명 1918-1920 20 Caprices et études rythmiques 1930-1935 La marche des Vaudois joyeux 연도미상 Boucles et arabesques (Les métis) 연도미상 Bourie 연도미상 Brimborions, 6 petites pièces faciles pour piano 연도미상 Cercles 연도미상 Danse nègre 연도미상 Danse romande 연도미상 Esquisse avec cymbales 연도미상 Esquisse pour un exercice de cordes 연도미상 Esquisse rythmique 연도미상 Trois esquisses genevoises en forme de danses 연도미상 Humoresque 연도미상 Trois morceaux pour piano Op. 44 연도미상 Le petit vent doux 연도미상 Neuf pièces (recueil artificiel) 연도미상 Trois pièces enfantines Op. 10 연도미상 Polka des boutons d or 연도미상 Ritournelle 연도미상 Rondo 연도미상 Valse-caprice Op. 8
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan: Issues of Identity in New York City s 1990s Folk Scenes 42) Heather A. Willoughby Contents Ⅰ. A Briedf History of the Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk 1. Fast Folk 2. Anti-Folk Ⅱ. Issues of Identity 1. A Sense of Community 2. Location, Décor and Atmosphere 3. Jack Hardy and Lach Bibliography Abstract - Received by July 20, First Reviewed by August 30, Finally Accepted by September 12.
116 이화음악논집 In the Spring 2016, Volume 20, Number 1 issue of the Journal of Ewha Music Research Institute, I published an article entitled, Digging up the Roots: Understanding what is meant by the term Folk Music. In that article, I elucidated various opinions and arguments regarding the question What is Folk Music? This question has plagued me for many years, and despite the inability to capture any semblance of a definitive answer, the former article explored ways in which a variety of scholars and artists have described folk music, and their personal involvement in the performance of the genre. The following musings are a continuation of the quest to understand the parameters of folk music through the lens of the folk music scene of New York City (NYC) in the mid-1990s. As mentioned in the first article, twenty years ago, as part of my Master s thesis research, I embarked upon a project to understand the dynamics of two starkly different folk music scenes in NYC, both of which claimed to be the true folk, the authentic bearers of the folk banner that was first raised in the late 1950s. The two groups (loosely) identified themselves as the (Fast) Folk and the Anti-Folk. This article will look more closely at the ideological and sonic divide between these two groups beginning with a brief history of each in order to understand their existence and the distinction/similarities between them. The second section deals with the identity of the groups and how their identity and image is perpetuated by the physical location and décor of the venues, the differences generated by a folk vs. a punk heritage, and the demographics of the performers and audience members. The research for this project was originally conducted over a 14-month period, beginning in January 1995 until March 1996. I attended numerous concerts and open mikes at the two main venues in question where I
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 117 observed, studied, and took notes regarding questions that I had concerning the respective communities, identities and atmospheres of the venues. I also performed, where possible, at the clubs in order to get a sense of the performer s perspective and the receptiveness from differing audience members. I formally interviewed 15 people who were either essential to the propagation of the scene and/or were regular performers at the clubs. I also informally spoke to numerous audience members and friends who at times accompanied me to the various clubs. Along with the informal interviews, I conducted a music survey of the audience members both at regular performances and at open mikes in order to better understand the demographics and perceptions of those attending the venues and how an identity is established through them. I have chosen to do an overview of the two groups in order to get a sense of the entire folk music scene of NYC in the mid-1990s. Despite the differences in musical sound and style from the early days of folk music collections a century ago, I argue that what happened in the 1990s was indeed an extension of the folk tradition. Ⅰ. A Brief History of the Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk were both established as a reaction to the rejection performers felt from various venues or folk gatherings. In the case of Fast Folk, the musicians felt they were not being accepted at the long established folk clubs, like Gerde s Folk City. 1) Thus, the 1) For more information regarding Gerde s Folk City, as well as other prominent folk
118 이화음악논집 disenfranchised set out to create a more open environment that would include all of those musicians ignored by the historically important venues. Interestingly, the Anti-Folk movement was subsequently created to counter-balance the rejection their artists received from Fast Folk. The history of each organization will be presented as they were described to me by Jack Hardy, Richard Meyer, and Lach, each of whom were central to the establishment and propagation of the respective groups. 1. Fast Folk Fast Folk officially began as a not-for-profit organization in 1984. However, for at least two years previous to that time, the same group of individuals that would later call themselves Fast Folk had been meeting under the auspices of the Coop. The CooP (pronounced as in chicken coop, and properly entitled The Musicians Cooperative ) began either with Jack Hardy and Maggie Roche meeting together to write songs and critique one another, or with Tom Intondi and friends gathering for the same purpose. Although there is some discrepancy as to who officially began the Coop, many people contributed to its early success. In the early 1980s, the CooP began with a group of individuals who would gather on Monday evenings at the Cornelia Street Cafe, which was at the time a rather small, one room coffee house in the West Village. There was no single person in charge and the purpose of the gathering was that everyone in attendance, or at least the first twelve music venues from the 1960s to 1980s, see: http://www.downtownexpress.com/2013/03/20/for-village-folkies-of-the-60s-turning-70-i s-a-good-gig/.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 119 who signed up, could perform a song, with the stipulation that it had to have been written that week. This policy became a running theme within this group: trying to help one another with their songwriting by demanding a consistent, weekly output. Jack Hardy claims that by making people write at least one song per week one is going to get a lot of bad songs, but one is also going to get more gems. Richard Meyer adds that many of the staple songs of popular folk performers, like Lucy Kaplansky, David Massengil, Brian Rose, Rod MacDonald, Cliff Eberhardt, Frank Christian and others came out of those early workshop days. The CooP gatherings outgrew the Cornelia Street Cafe but was able to take up residence in a newly established venue, the Speakeasy. The CooP was born close on the heels of the founding of the Speakeasy in Sept 81. Formed as a cooperative, that club was run for five years primarily by and for the musicians who played and lived there, or hung out in the Village and needed a stage when others were not readily available. It was a successful operation for them, giving main-stage time to acts that needed developing and others that were seasoned but not considered marketable. 2) The Speakeasy was booked, managed, organized and even cleaned by the CooP musicians, while a man named Joe Zbeda, who owned the facilities, ran the bar. One of the goals of the CooP s governing committee was to make compilation records of the local performers. This goal and its subsequent realization was significant in two ways: First, (unlike today where there are numerous quality digital recording 2) Richard Meyers, Looking Back and Around, Fast Folk Musical Magazine 4/5&6 (1988), 2.
120 이화음악논집 programs) local, non-professional musicians did not generally have access to affordable recording equipment, so it was considered very rare for an individual performer to record his or her own full-length album at their own expense. Second, since the CooP albums were compilations, they introduced an audience to other performers with whom they might not otherwise come in contact. For instance, performers would take a few copies of the CooP albums with them on tour and sell them for two dollars, thus allowing audiences to get a recording of a specific artist, and in turn become exposed to at least a dozen other folk performers who had recorded on that same album. The making of the CooP compilation albums was expensive and involved a great deal of work. In order to compensate for the burdens placed on the musicians, a not-for-profit organization called Fast Folk, was established. Making records involves substantial amounts of money. This aspect of the CooP forced it to outgrow its status as a club committee. A desire to get funding..., become tax exempt..., and function more autonomously led to the formation of a legal entity, the Fast Folk Musical Magazine, Inc. This all-volunteer organization was still a product of a scene in which most of the major performers and workers were living, performing and working in the neighborhood. By recording for Fast Folk and the CooP, many people learned the rudiments of studio technique, improved their musicianship and realized they could make their own records and went ahead and did just that. 3) When the CooP expanded into Fast Folk they decided to produce ten compilation albums per year. Included with the album was the Fast Folk 3) Meyer, Ibid, 3.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 121 Musical Magazine with the lyrics to each of the songs as well as interviews and discussions of relevant folk music topics. Although the musicians were still performing at the Speakeasy and other venues, Fast Folk itself was not yet a venue, but an organization to distribute the compilation albums and magazine. For an annual fee an individual could subscribe to Fast Folk and receive the ten albums and magazines each year. According to Jack Hardy, another purpose of the Fast Folk project was to create the myth that there was a contemporary scene happening in the Village with a club, live performances and recordings and then eventually prove the myth to be true. By virtue of the fact that Fast Folk was still flourishing fifteen years later, they seem to have accomplished that goal. Unfortunately, all was not rosy and communal in the folk world and Fast Folk definitely experienced their share of turbulent times. Identifying the reasons for the disruptions often leads to some rather heated discussion among the members. Jack Hardy was involved with the CooP and Fast Folk since its inception. His home became the gathering place for the weekly songwriters exchange and workshops when the Cornelia Street Cafe was no longer able to accommodate them. His home also housed the financial and legal records of Fast Folk. However, on January 1, 1987, Hardy had the locks on his door changed and, at least for a few years, washed his hands of involvement with the group. According to Richard Meyer, this devastated and nearly destroyed Fast Folk, because the loose-knit group floated and floundered for several years without access to the legal records. However, under Meyer s direction, functioning as the magazine s new editor, Fast Folk was able to continue sporadically recording albums and producing the magazine. By 1992, under Meyer s direction, Fast Folk surpassed its
122 이화음악논집 previous success; as attested to by the number of members, subscriptions, and consistency at generating the albums. Ever since the group expanded from the CooP to Fast Folk, they have produced an annual live musical revue at the Bottom Line in the West Village. 4) The revue includes many of the musicians who had recorded during the previous years, as well as the introduction of songs by other, sometimes lesser-known artists. Generally, the revues would play at the Bottom Line for one or two nights. However, on February 20, 21 and 22 of 1992 Fast Folk presented their most successful revue, their Tenth Anniversary show, with both the early (7:00 pm) and late (11:00 pm) shows selling out every night. The shows included, as always, a few new faces as well as many performers who by that time had made a name for themselves and had established professional singing careers, including The Roches, Christine Lavin, Pierce Pettis, 5 Chinese Brothers, Frank Christiansen, David Massengil, Dave van Ronk, John Gorka, Suzanne Vega, Hugh Blumenfeld and numerous others. Jack Hardy eventually returned to New York after a hiatus and demanded that he regain the reigns of Fast Folk. Some say it was a good idea because Meyer was busy doing other projects; however, others claim that Hardy usurped control through intimidation and coercion and that there have been problems ever since. Whatever the case, Hardy led the way to the opening of the Fast Folk Cafe in 1995. It was designed to re-establish a performing venue for local artists and highlight some of the earlier performers who continued to tour or who had moved to other 4) The Bottom Line was a medium-sized but intimate performance venue that opened in February 1974 and closed January 2004. It had a significant impact on the folk music scene in NYC during its 30-year history.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 123 cities but occasionally return to NYC for performances. 2. Anti-Folk The Anti-Folk group is the creation of a man who goes by the name of Lach (pronounced Latch ), and originated in response to his interactions and lack of acceptance at the Fast Folk gatherings and other folk organizations. 5) Lach claims that he was physically ousted from Folk City and the Speakeasy, was turned away from organizations like Fast Folk, and thus set out to create his own group with an atmosphere conducive to fostering his style and that of others like him. What differentiates Lach from many of the Fast Folk and West Village performers are his musical interests and background. Lach became interested in songwriting and was influenced primarily by the Sex Pistols and other punk bands of the late 1970s. He also listened, though, to other, more traditional singer/songwriters such as Bob Dylan and Phil Ochs. Although their musical expression may not sound the same as Lach s, Dylan and the others inspired him with their good songwriting namely, their ability to create a perfect marriage of lyrics and sound. Around 1981, after reading a Dylan biography, Lach set his sights on New York City to sing on the same stages as Dylan himself in establishments such as Folk City. He figured if Dylan could do it, so could he. But Fast Folk s reception to his punk image and performance style was less than 5) The Anti-Folk movement spawned by Lach was relatively new when the original research for this article was conducted. Since that time, much has happened, the Anti-Folk scene as greatly expanded, and many articles, blogs and videos can be found about Lach. However, the information provided herein is that which I gained through personal observation and interviews in the mid-1990s.
124 이화음악논집 generous. Lach participated in the open mike nights accompanying himself on his electric keyboard. He says of his songs and experience: The songs were as much Boomtown Rats as they were Woody Guthrie..., I was not really welcomed with this sound, you know. And I kept coming back and playing there, and after while quickly realized that the only reason they had the Monday night open mike was to get suckers like me to come down and sell beer to them. And there was no real like nurturing of the artist, or bringing them up to Tuesday or bringing them up to a better night. If it was, it wasn t happening to me, that s for sure... I noticed that the people that were getting more acceptance were sorta the namby-pamby, ya know, sorta James Taylor kind of song writing. 6) It is essential to understand the importance of the punk background of Lach s music, as well as that of his fellow Anti-Folkers, for that was the apparent catalyst that created the chasm between the folk scenes of the East and West Village in the 1990s, and thus the major theme running throughout this paper. Lach, and three others (Lenny, Sam and Zane), who were all long-standing regulars at The Fort (New York s Anti-Folk venue) when I conducted my initial research in the mid-1990s, reiterated that punk was their first love of music, and primary influence. Lenny, who was prone to bringing every conversation back to issues of class and politics, was disgusted by the money-driven musical productions of rock groups like the Rolling Stones and Led Zepplin, where there is a lot of hyperbole and exaggeration of the earlier, more pure blues of a poor, black sharecropper out in his field. Lenny s point is, that after 6) Lach, Interview with Author, New York City, February 23, 1996.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 125 all the villainy and killing of the spirit of the blues, punk came along and stripped everything down, went backward in order to go forward, became more simple and more intelligent. It is Lenny s opinion that punk was a return to the real music of the folk. With the inspiration of albums like Bruce Springsteen s Nebraska, Lach realized that a conglomeration of sounds could be achieved; in his case, it is the weaving of punk and folk. This new sound, this new conglomeration, is what got Lach kicked out of the folk clubs, including the Speakeasy that was supposedly opened to counterbalance the scene at Folk City and was meant to tolerate all types of singers. After several unpleasant encounters with the hierarchy that overtook the Speakeasy (including most of the formidable members of Fast Folk already mentioned), Lach moved to the East Side and opened The Fort on Rivington Street the first of its many homes. The opening of The Fort in August of 1985 coincided with the first annual New York Folk Festival, so Lach s initiated the first annual Anti-Folk Festival, in retaliation. The name of the club is derived from an Akira Kurosawa film entitled The Hidden Fortress. According to Lach, the Daily News called the location surrounding The Fort the most dangerous block in New York, 7) yet despite the less-than-perfect location and the fact that it was an illegal after-hours club, people still flocked to this new establishment. Acts were booked from the growing list of people that were being booted out of Folk City and The Speakeasy. Zane Campbell, Roger Manning, Mr. Death, Kurt Kelly, were among the early performers. There 7) Despite looking through archives of the Daily News, I was not able to find the article to which Lach was referring.
126 이화음악논집 was a group of artists, associated with nearby galleries that formed a fairly consistent audience, reminiscent of the early symbiotic days in the West Village. The artists would attend the clubs at night and the musicians would support the galleries during the day. Although the physical location of The Fort moved frequently throughout its early existence, it maintained a fairly regular following. Of lasting importance to Lach and the Anti-Folk movement was the night that Bob Dylan, in disguise, graced the club and later talked with Lach. Although he says he is sworn to secrecy about the ensuing conversation, Lach considers it to be the blessing that sanctioned his efforts. As with Fast Folk, however, all was not well in the Anti-Folk world. Although various performers had gotten contracts with record companies, including Lach, Paleface, Casey Scott and others, their contracts were either dropped or the records went nowhere. Just when it seemed that the Anti-Folk movement was making progress and making its mark, things began to dwindle, they lost their momentum, and the movement was disbanded for a time. Apparently, as performers sought after their own success, the individual musicians were unable to maintain cohesiveness as a group. Lach has inferred that he became greedy and lost the motivation to create his music merely for the sake of art, and consequently, that decision injured his own music as well as the Anti-Folk movement, in general. This created a curious dilemma since one point of the group was to be heard and find success, but at the time it seemed more destructive than constructive. Moving to San Francisco, trying to regroup through meditation and regaining the joy of music making, Lach succeeded in getting a song about Hillary Clinton played on various radio stations throughout the US.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 127 He also began establishing an Anti-Folk scene in San Francisco; at the time, he was calling the gatherings anti-socials. They were like open, with showcases. I started turning San Francisco on to the Anti-Folk scene. I found it real easy to do, I found that... in every city there was a bloated singer/songwriter scene and it s just waiting for a kid with a pin-prick of Anti-Folk to pop the whole thing, and for everyone to go Oh, my God, ya know. It s the same things that Lenny was saying about punk, ya know, we don t need the limo, we don t need the acceptance, we just need the guitar and the troupe. So, the San Francisco scene was really easy to create..., and within nine months the Sacred Ground [the club where Lach established himself in San Francisco] was a big scene, it was a really big scene going on. 8) Lach returned to New York but said that he did not want to get involved in running a club again and have all the latent desires to make it big return. But when he went into the Sidewalk Cafe located in the Lower East Side (94 E. 6th Street on Avenue A) the proprietors requested that he run a scene. He agreed, but only if they gave him a variety of lighting and sound equipment, thinking that his request would not be granted. That decision was the beginning of the re-establishment of the New York Anti-Folk scene at The Fort, which is still flourishing today at the Sidewalk Cafe. Lach often gets asked just what he considers the Anti-Folk to be. He responds in different ways at different times, yet it is apparent he gets bored with the question. He would rather have the audience listen to the music itself and figure it out the answer for themselves. One reasonable definition, by an unidentified author, is printed as a manifesto 8) Lach, Ibid.
128 이화음악논집 in AntiMatters, a bi-monthly magazine that was available in the mid-1990s at The Fort. The magazine (two to six pages of Xeroxed material) includes articles written by some of the Anti-Folkers and also includes a schedule of upcoming events. The manifesto reads as follows: What is Anti-Folk? It s a natural question. But then, what is folk music? Bob Dylan? James Taylor? Cobain unplugged (for good)? I think of Anti-Folk as an historical term, referring to a ragtag team of mid- 80 s folk-punk pioneers who rejected the staid and elitist West Village folk scene. Once separated, these original Anti-Folkers gathered in a meeting place called The Fort in the East Village to forge the new cutting edge of acoustic music. The Fort became a mobile playhouse for the Anti s, switching locations every year or so as its founder Lach sought out better and better venues for the new rising tide. Some familiar names that arose from Anti-Folk are Roger Manning, Brenda Kahn, Paleface, Mike Rimbaud and Beck among others. Today, Anti-Folk enjoys the latest incarnation of The Fort at the Sidewalk Cafe at 6th Street and Avenue A in the East Village. Live free music reigns every night of the week at The Fort, and the Monday night Anti-Hootenanny is the highlight for many. The new Anti-Folkies continue the tradition of the old, practicing experimental song-writing and fighting mediocrity at every turn. The musical sound of the Anti-Folk, including its sometimes provocative lyrics, is one of its most distinguishing features. The combining of folk and punk music, though unique, has meant that it has not always been readily accepted among the traditional folk performers of the West Village, particularly the Fast Folk scene. Whether Fast Folk participants acknowledge the Anti-Folk movement as viable folk music or not, they seem intent on continuing their exploration of new sounds and practicing
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 129 experimental song-writing and fighting mediocrity at every turn. Lach was rather open about his contempt toward Fast Folk and Jack Hardy and it was apparent that he and others felt strongly enough about the politics involved and their rejection by Fast Folk to venture out on their own and create their own folk organizations. In the following sections, it will be shown how these groups, particularly the Anti-Folk interacted with one another, what effects that had on the folk scene of New York in the mid-1990s. Ⅱ. Issues of Identity Robert Walser articulates a commonly agreed upon thought when he says, music is intimately involved with crucial feeling of identity and notions of community. 9) But what kind of community exists among the folk musicians in New York City? It is not a community based on neighbors that live in close proximity, or a group of with a common ancestry. Nor is it necessarily a group of individuals who share all the same political or moral values. Rather, in the case of the communities associated with Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk they are groups of people gathered together so that meaningful communication can take place. Related with that communication is a sense of shared goals and a belief that music somehow connects one individual to another. In discussing how the myth of community works in popular music, Simon Frith has said, The music (whether folk or pop or rock) is not 9) Robert Walser, Running with the Devil: Power, Gender and Madness in Heavy Metal Music (Wesleyan University Press, 1993), xii.
130 이화음악논집 made by a community, but provides particular sorts of communal experience... This community [is] defined in terms of taste and sensitivity, rather than in terms of politics and ideology. 10) Frith continues to explain that an audience may be joined together only because they enjoy a particular performer s music,...but such enjoyment [comes] to define what community [means]... The rock community refers not to an institution, to a set of people, but to a sensation. 11) This definition of community seems to be applicable to both performers and audience members of Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk. Although some individuals continue their friendships outside of the bounds of the venues themselves, more likely they come together to share the experience, the sensation of the music, but otherwise disassociate themselves with the scene. Thus, the community may seem very transitory; nevertheless, there is often a sense of loyalty and comradeship that extends itself into the community. In interviewing my informants, I asked certain questions in order to try to distinguish the identities being formulated by the various groups. First of all, I was curious whether the groups felt that they had a sense of community, and if so what constituted that community, and what was meant by community. I also wanted to understand the significance of the East vs. West Village (Anti-Folk and Fast Folk, respectively) barriers that seem to exist: do the physical locations of the venues play a substantial role in their identity? Does the décor of the venues help to enhance the chosen identity? Does the clothing worn by the performers 10) Simon Frith, Taking Popular Music Seriously: Selected Essays (Ashgate Publishing, 1981), 164. 11) Frith, Ibid.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 131 and audience members signify anything about their musical identity? And finally, what roles have Jack Hardy and Lach played in the continuance of the various scenes and what are the consequences of those roles? 1. A Sense of Community In the early 1980s, participants in the Fast Folk scene felt strongly that they were not only individual performers who occasionally recorded together on a compilation album, but that their association with one another formed a supportive community. Wendy Beckerman, who was an active member of Fast Folk in the mid-1990s, was not directly associated with New York City s folk music scene in the early days of Fast Folk, she says that the reputation of the Speakeasy was not just of a place to play, but that it was a home. This feeling extended into the formation of Fast Folk, of which she said: The thing about the [Fast Folk] magazine... and the club is that, the main objective is to bring people together. That s the main objective... if you can really put them [the objectives] in order, of course the music is pretty close behind, if not just as high as that, but that s really the most important thing. And that s part of building an audience and having a scene. 12) She added that, for her, Fast Folk is a very supportive group and a constant source of encouragement, which helps in the process of trying to become a better song writer. Richard Meyer, who was involved with the creation of Fast Folk and continued to be a part of scene, believes that in the early days of Fast Folk there was a very real and strong sense of community, a sense that 12) Wendy Beckerman, Interview with Author, New York City (April 1, 1996).
132 이화음악논집 was missing by the mid-1990s. He concluded that there were several reasons for this change. First, in the early 1980s Folk City (the most prominent folk club in New York at the time) began to change its booking policies so that it became virtually impossible for local artist to get a chance to play at there. Therefore, Jack Hardy began to rally people together to start their own club. When people are joined in a cause, particularly one that so directly affects themselves and their music a strong sense of unity is subsequently created. It worked because there were so many people that cared that were willing to get involved. Second, at the time that the Speakeasy was fully functioning as a cooperative folk venue, the majority of performers were local although occasionally big-name headliners would be brought in. As the musicians invited their friends to a performance, the audience was subsequently introduced to other folk singers. Eventually this group of performers and members formed a tight nucleus. Because the club was run by the musicians themselves, they had to sacrifice a great deal for its survival. Meyer did not believe that the same sense of commitment to fellow performers or the organization existed by 1995. Finally, as was mentioned previously, recording practices of the early 1980s also played a part in the sense of community that existed. Since artists did not have the means to produce an entire album on their own, they relied on the compilation albums to distribute their works. Richard Meyer noted, People were really dedicated to writing and they weren t doing it with a record company in mind, at least overtly. I m sure everyone still had their dream and still does, but really, people were coming down to write for each other. You could feel that really through 1986 or so. It was exciting then. 13) He continued by saying that the
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 133 scene was driven by people trying to write great songs that could out-do one another in friendly competitions. Many of those songs are now considered the signature pieces of the performers, especially those that have had commercial success, such as Shawn Colvin ( Shotgun Down the Avalanche ) and John Gorka ( Where the Bottle Breaks ). Meyer believes that some of the fundamental reasons for writing songs shifted. Whereas one used to write for the sake of the song, by the 1990s, people were writing because if they want to perform at public venues, they felt some sort of obligation to have tapes, records or CDs to sell at the performances. Now, because it is so easy to make records and it s accepted, almost an obligation, that if you are going to go out and play at clubs at all, that you have to have tapes, and have to have records, that people concentrate more on that as a goal than writing as a goal. Even though there is no reason to make a record unless you have the songs to fill it up. The emphasis has changed. The emphasis is now on the record as an entree to other clubs and the business rather than a collection of the art you ve created. 14) Despite the fact that Meyer feels there was no longer a familial sense of community in the same way there was in the 1980s, many of the musicians involved in Fast Folk in the 1990s, attend the songwriter s workshop for the same reasons as those in the past. Linda Sharar commented that singing and participating in Fast Folk songwriter s circle was a social event. It was an opportunity for people to share their music, and get some sort of immediate feedback in a safe environment. The 13) Richard Meyer, Interview with Author, New York City (March 21, 1996). 14) Meyer, Ibid.
134 이화음악논집 idea behind what people see as the folk scene or folk network, and the reason singer/songwriters are attracted to it is because it is not about me becoming something other than you are. It s not like I want to be a performer because I want to be special or, I want people to pay attention to me because I m special. I m just like everybody else and I m performing a service when I get up to perform of making people feel the common elements between them, of evoking that and affirming that, and celebrating it. 15) This ability share openly one s own music helps to perpetuate a community. Steve Redhead and John Street in writing about a folk ideology and its relation to politics, specifically, further define what Sharar expressed. The ideology: rests on the idea that music is connected with some notion of the people. The music is understood as deriving from a local culture and, as such, is an expression of the feelings and experiences of an everyday reality... The folk ideology works through a notion of a musicians right to speak for a community or people. It is the sort of concept that underpins many versions of democracy. Musicians function like elected politicians; they represent their audience/constituency. Their authority is dependent on their ability to claim to speak for those who follow. 16) Although none of my informants said anything about actually representing, or speaking for the community as a whole, they felt that their music could speak to the audience, and that the audience could relate to the experiences shared in the music, thus enhancing the community and 15) Linda Sharar, Interview with Author, New York City (February 8, 1996). 16) Steve Readhead and John Street. Have I the Right? Legitimacy, Authenticity and Community in Folk s Politics. Popular Music 8(2), 177-178.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 135 allowing for meaningful communication. The East Village folk community is more difficult to pin down or describe, but much of it seems to be based on shared experiences. One way of building a musical community is on a foundation of a shared history. This is a typical folk device, to sing about and fix attention upon a common sense of history; to establish a (mythical) past which we share or at least identify with. 17) This is true of the East Village Anti-Folk Scene, whereas the West Village group drew closer to one another with the creation of the Speakeasy, the exclusion of Lach and others like him from that community was the very impetus for the creation of a distinct scene. When acoustic folk singers with a punk-based sound found themselves ousted from the West Village they were driven to develop their own arena wherein they could perform the type of music that fit their style. Perhaps the Anti-Folkers echo the view of the Mekons, an English folk group referred to in Redhead and Street s discussion of community: They deploy English folk and US country styles to evoke a sense of community, but not to create an audience around those communities. Instead, the sense of community is used to illustrate their main theme: the collapse of community and the experience of desperation and alienation that follows. 18) Lach did not perceive the East Village scene as community in the same way the West Village group described themselves, but there does exist a group of people who regularly gather because of shared interests, goals and desires to proliferate the identity of Anti-Folk and its music. When Lach was asked what he thought of the West Village community, 17) Readhead and Street, Ibid, 181. 18) Readhead and Street, Ibid.
136 이화음악논집 and if the East Village scene had a similar sense of community, he replied: Community sounds kinda namby-pamby to me. I think the way it is being used here [the description of the West Village community ] that a community is the least common denominator of non-successful people. And that if someone were ever to be successful they would be so long to the community. And, it s more like a community in the way that a life raft is a community. So, I don t see [the East Village scene] as much as a community. Also, commune means everyone is doing equal work and sharing. And I found from my experience at the Fast Folk, it projected that illusion, calling itself a co-op and everything, but it was actually a hierarchy, with Jack [Hardy] and Rod [MacDonald] and Richard [Meyer] getting the best fruit, yet people underneath doing the other stuff. So, it was a commune in the same way the Communist regime was. But I don t operate under any of those illusions. I do all the work, organize the whole thing and created the whole thing and there are other people then who become inspired by that and do work themselves. So, it s been an inspirational kind a thing, but I don t actually know what community means. No one actually lives there, no one is camping out there and growing crops or anything! We re just a night club that has given birth to an entire movement of music. People identify themselves with each other, you know, people identify themselves as Anti-Folk and there is sorta a commonality there. 19) Whether or not there is an actual communal feel, as described by Lach in the Anti-Folk group, there is definitely a community of people who gather to share their talents and musical interests. As with the Fast Folk participants, the community that exists has been built of time, by volunteers willing to devote themselves to the cause of proliferating folk music both for their own benefit, and to that of their respective audiences. In 1996, the Anti-Folk group produced a compilation album 19) Lach, Interview with Author, New York City (April 8, 1996).
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 137 in which selected artists performed live at an Anti-hoot event. That album, like those made by Fast Folk, helped to build the community by allowing a larger audience to become aware of what was happening in the scene, and to spread the identity of the group. 2. Location, Décor and Atmosphere The Fast Folk Cafe and The Fort, which is the primary venue for the Anti-Folk are situated in distinctly different sections of Manhattan, namely, the West Village and the East Village, respectively. The very location of the venues says something of the image the clubs and their attendants are hoping to perpetuate. Likewise, the décor and resulting atmosphere of the two venues is significant in that they reify the ideals of the group. In the following section I will briefly describe the physical properties of the venues and postulate on their meanings. The Fast Folk Cafe is in a warehouse district in Tribeca, slightly south of the heart of the West Village, but close enough to be associated with its history and reputation. The Fast Folk scene depends, in part, on the history of folk music as was represented by the Village scene that existed from the late 1950s to the present. In the 1950s, Pete Seeger and Woody Gutherie established the Almanac House, which accommodated itinerant musicians, and other wanderers who needed a place to bed down. This house and those who passed through it were monumental in perpetuating the folk scene. Also, during the 1950s-60s, the area surrounding Washington Square Park was replete with every imaginable kind of street musician whether traditional, folk or hopeful singers following the example of Bob Dylan and Joan Baez.
138 이화음악논집 Those associated with the current Fast Folk scene feel as though they are a continuation of the real folk tradition as instituted by Seeger, Gutherie, Dylan and others. It is significant, therefore, that their venue be in the West Village. However, due to ever escalating real estate prices in and around Washington Square (the 1960s heart of folk music), it is virtually impossible to run a club today that subsists on a minimal cover charge and inexpensive refreshments. Therefore, Fast Folk had to obtain a venue that was affordable, while maintaining the image of being at the center of the folk community of the past. The location in the warehouse district of Tribeca makes it somewhat difficult to find. In fact, unless one knows the club is there it might easily be passed by. The Cafe opens to the street with a undistinguishable black metal door above which hangs a small sign indicating the home of the Fast Folk Cafe. Once inside, one enters a short hall way that houses two bathrooms, which also serve as rooms for tuning instruments before a gig or set at an open mike. On the walls in the entry way one can gaze upon a pictorial history of Fast Folk. On the right are dozens of records from past generations, with names that anyone interested in folk music would instantly recognize: Christine Lavin, Shawn Colvin, John Gorka, Hugh Blumenfeld, the Roches, and others. The same is true of the photos on the left-hand wall, most of which were reprinted in the Fast Folk Musical Magazine. On the right-hand table, beside the wall with the display of albums, current issues of Fast Folk CDs and magazines are for sale, along with a few of the most recent recording of current Fast Folk artists such as Richard Meyer, Jack Hardy, Wendy Beckerman and Tim Robinson. Also, on the table are a scattering of flyers and pamphlets announcing upcoming
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 139 concerts at the Cafe. Additionally, and perhaps most importantly, one can find an application forms to become a member/subscriber to Fast Folk. Stepping further into the long, fairly narrow room that constitutes the Cafe, one can find the edible items that are served. The Cafe sells herbal teas, coffee, soda, chips and cookies all for a suggested, but not mandatory, donation. Not much of a cafe fare actually, but it is assumed one is there to listen, not eat. At one point, when the Cafe first opened in 1995 they had a liquor license, but they no longer serve alcohol. Volunteers who will normally be seen participating in open mike nights and are sometimes the opening act for headline performers run the cafe, like all of the organization. On average, there will be three to five volunteers per night, depending on the occasion and who is playing. Even if one is not a regular volunteer, but happens to come early, they may be asked to help set up chairs, make the coffee, or other odd jobs that must be accomplished before the show can begin. The venue is said to accommodate approximately 70 people, but an audience of 45-50 seems to fill the place tightly enough. All around the outside edge of the room there are padded benches with wooden chairs constituting the remaining seating. The chairs are actually quite uncomfortable, although they are adequate for the allotted space. In addition to the chairs there are approximately seven or eight small tables scattered throughout the room. If you are a Fast Folk subscriber you can reserve a seat for a performance ahead of time by leaving a phone message. The stage is approximately 8 x 6 and is raised off of the floor by about 8. Depending on who is performing, there are generally two mikes set up with a stool and a couple of chairs. The Cafe itself has two speakers, to which some performers add their own amplifying devices.
140 이화음악논집 However, that does pose a bit of a problem: the Cafe s upstairs neighbor apparently does not like them much and has filed numerous complaints. They have reached a compromise that dictates that the Cafe can use the mikes and amplifiers, but must be closed by 10:00 pm. Even when they comply to the rules the neighbor has been know to accidentally leave her water on, allowing it to seep through the roof and nearly destroy the stage and sound board below. Unfortunately this occurred on a night that one of folk music s more flamboyant, and entertaining rockers, Jim Infantino and his band, Jim s Big Ego, was supposed to perform. Infantino was asked to tone down his show and keep it as quite as possible. I believe it greatly stinted an otherwise lively performance by Jim and may have inhibited him from wanting to return to this venue in the future, especially since he also get gigs at clubs like the Mercury Cafe and the Bitter End, where there are no such limitations on his sound or volume, and room for far larger audiences. When a performance is about to begin the house lights will be turned off and a set of stage lights, consisting again of a meager, but adequate four spot lights will be lit. Because the venue is relatively small, even with the house lights off the performer can see the audience clearly and feel a close interaction with them. This, I believe, is part of the folk feel of the Cafe: an intimate setting where the performer is close to the audience and can easily associate with them, and where the audience can feel a part of the performance. Because of the lack of distance between the performer and audience as well as the intimate lighting, the audience is normally very quite and attentive. Even if the performance is bad and the audience disinterested, there is rarely talking during a set. Occasionally someone will be eating
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 141 chips or other foods, (after all, it is a cafe,) but for the most part even a little noise seems distracting. Performers occasionally try, with varying degrees of success, to engage the audience in a sing along. Take for instance, the humorous tune, I m a Butthead by Jim Infantino. During the chorus he sings the word yeah, followed by a pause for the audience to echo it and then all are encouraged to join in singing: I m a Butthead. In this particular setting the audience seemed rather timid and hesitant. There are at least three possible explanations: 1) as was mentioned before, this was the night that the volunteers had just finished wiping up the floor from the accidental flooding and had requested a reasonably quite evening; 2) the audience was unacquainted with the song, and perhaps to some extent the performer, and did not know it was a participatory moment; or 3) they did not feel comfortable in sharing their own vocal talents in such a close setting. I have seen Infantino perform this song in other venues, where the audience was loud and responsive. In each of the other situations, the venue was large and lighting was dim. Not surprisingly, the physical attributes of The Fort, housed in the East Village s Sidewalk Cafe were remarkably different than that of the West Village Fast Folk Café in the 1990s. The Sidewalk Cafe is situated on Avenue A at 6th Street, a few blocks south of Tompkins Square where the after affects of the riot and closure of that infamous park can still be felt by way of the continual presence of police. In contrast to the West Village s folk heritage, the East Village is entrenched in a punk environment. In the vicinity surrounding the Sidewalk Cafe are sex shops, punk record and clothing stores, tattoo and piercing parlors, and bookstores specializing in anarchists wares.
142 이화음악논집 The Fort is lodged in the back portion of the Sidewalk Cafe, and is divided into two rooms that are open to one another. The first difference a patron notices between the Fast Folk Cafe and this one, is the lack of light. Some light seeps through from the adjacent bar and restaurant, but the primary lights are those shinning on the stage, although there are other track lights which illuminate collections of art displayed on the walls. The walls, which are all painted black, add to the darkness of this club. The walls are, however, far from being colorless or lifeless. Scattered throughout the club is an odd assortment of old instruments from trombones to harmonicas, accordions to air guitars. How does one know there are air guitars? Simple, every night Lach announces that one of the sponsors of The Fort is Eddy s Air Guitars, and asks the audience to pay particular attention to Eddy s creations! Since The Fort is an extension of the Sidewalk s bar, alcoholic beverages are served and smoking was allowed (in the 90s). The constant movement of the waitpersons, and lack of light make The Fort anything but a quite listening room. Although the audience does seem to attend the club for the music, and is generally very responsive to it, there is also a great deal of background conversation. Rarely is the entire audience absolutely quiet and attentive. This is true whether attending an open mike night, or a headline performance. Generally there is a difference in the noise level between the front and back sections of the venue. If, for instance, friends of a performer have come just for that act, they will usually sit close to the front where there is less talking. The back room is usually filled with people who have wandered in from the bar, or couples and groups that are as intent on carrying on conversations as they are listening to the music. For the most
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 143 part, this is generally unobtrusive to the members in the front of the venue. However, there have been occasions when those in attendance were obviously not there to enjoy the music, even as background to their conversation, and were consequently disruptive (by yelling, cursing at the performers, etc.,) to the remainder of the crowd. In addition to the bar, which is often quite full and noisy, there is a basement that houses a pool table. Because there no second story floor directly above the pool table, there is no muting of the sound of pool balls crashing against one another, nor is there a suppression of the voices of (usually drunken) pool players. In fact, the pool players are often quite loud and either consciously disrespectful of the music playing above them, or are simply oblivious to the fact that the noise carries so easily to the performance venue above. Despite the inherent noise in such an environment, the audience seems to really enjoy the performers and will interact and respond to them. If a song is particularly humorous there is laughter and applause at clever lines. If a song makes a poignant political point there is approval shown through cheering, clapping and even an occasional spoken interjection. If a performer has an especially good and energetic gig, they are instantly rewarded with enthusiastic applause. This is not always the case, however, especially during open mike nights, when the comments from the crowd and announcer can be cruel, rather than encouraging. There is never a cover charge for any of the shows, and excepting a one drink minimum, there are no other fiscal responsibilities required. To insure that the performers are compensated in some manner there is a tip jar passed around near the end of every act. Generally, people seem generous in their donations, especially if they are attending a performance
144 이화음악논집 of friends, or if the singer or band is exceptionally well accepted. Only on one occasion, when I was the last to add to the pot, did I see less than $10.00 in accumulated tips. On average, most people contribute one dollar per gig with a typical audience of 30-50 people. There is not a raised stage at The Fort, just a clearing for the performer(s) and mike stands. There are chairs available for the performers, though it is rare that anyone sits. Next to the clearing for the stage, is a grand piano, which is used fairly often. On the opposite side of the stage Lach, or the designated MC for the evening, sits and controls the soundboard and lights. There are colored lights and even something resembling a flashing disco light, as well as a neon sign which reads: The Sidewalk Cafe that occasionally gets lit. Directly behind the stage area is an emergency exit door that displays a hand-drawn, white poster with black writing: there is an oval divided into four portions, and in each section there is a single letter: NYAF (New York Anti Folk). Some of the diehard advocates of the Anti-Folk movement also have this symbol on guitar cases and jackets. Do the venues, by their physical locations and décor attract a certain kind of crowd and thus perpetuate a given identity, or is the décor merely a reflection of the people who would attend the venue no matter its appearance? The answer is both, I believe. The physical attributes of the venues themselves play a part in the identity and reputation of each of the groups I studied. The Fast Folk Cafe, with its brighter lights, and more spacious seating tends to cater to a more serene crowd. As such the music tends to be much quieter and mellow in comparison with The Fort. As The Fort is rather dark and the performers are unable to see
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 145 their audience, background noise and conversations are much more common. The very locations of the venues play a significant role in who attends the club. No one, most likely, will simply be wandering through the warehouse district of Tribeca and randomly find the Fast Folk Cafe and decide to drop in rather, an audience member will specifically decide to attend on a given night. There are few restaurants or other establishments in the area that are open at night to attract walkers-by, so it is very unlikely that someone will just drop in. On the other hand, The Fort, just two blocks south of St. Marks Place the heart of the East Village, attracts many people who have come to the bar or restaurant, or who are simply passing by. 3. Jack Hardy and Lach On February 24, 1996, I was able to observe some of the more pointed differences between the Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk. That evening, Jack Hardy played at the Fast Folk Cafe, while a few hours later Lach played at The Fort. It was interesting to examine the moving forces behind the respective groups on the same night while trying to determine what differences really exist between the two. Hardy began singing about 8:30, after Tim Robinson, a regular at Fast Folk, played an opening gig. Hardy wore blue jeans, a white oxford shirt and a new green velvet jacket. He apparently always wears the same jacket when he performs. A friend and fellow Fast Folk performer, Louise Taylor, made the velvet jacket he was donning this night, apparently because the previous ceremonial jacket had finally worn out.
146 이화음악논집 Hardy played the guitar and mandolin and was accompanied by a band comprised of Rob Wolf on lead guitar and Scott Nelson on bass. The first set consisted of ten songs, two of which could be considered politically charged. He opened the set with a song about the millennium, saying that since it was soon upon us (as a reminder, this was in 1996), he thought he d get a head start on the rush of songs that would no doubt be forthcoming. It was a song about the ways in which man goes about destroying himself and the planet. The other political song, which was sung near the end of the first set, deals with gay and AIDS issues as they are represented in the Halloween parade on Manhattan s Sixth Avenue. Hardy brought to light the irony of a street named the Avenue of the Americas and the parade in which...everything America is afraid of is parading in a ritualized hell. It was a very powerful song dealing head-on with an issue not often addressed in folk music at that time. Hardy also sang two songs with an Irish feel to them. One of which included a chorus in Gaelic. He translated the lyrics before beginning to sing. The other was a memorial to a man he used to play with in Ireland. Willie Goggin s wife, it was explained in the introduction, had given a hat to Hardy that had once belonged to his friend, Willie a hat that consequently had great sentimental value to the singer. Hardy continued his introduction by saying that he used the hat as a prop in all of his plays, because of the heritage and meaning associated with it. One day, as he was attempting to raise the money necessary to open the Fast Folk Cafe he took a regular paying job as a carpenter, but in the process of the workday he lost the hat. He concluded, it was a sign from the goddess that I should never work for a living! Although the audience laughed, I think Hardy was being perfectly straightforward. I
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 147 believe this story was told for two reasons. First, Hardy is very proud of his knowledge of Irish music and history, and consequently he wished to display to his audience the authenticity of the Irish sounding tune he was about to play. Secondly, he is very proud that he has never had to consistently work at a real job, but has proceeded through life like one of his beloved Irish bards; making his living by music alone, and music being made for the sake of art alone. The lyrics of two songs included titles of other well-known songs, and occasionally even a brief melodic line from one of the tunes. These again are significant in that they attempt to show his broad knowledge of music and his prowess in incorporating traditional folk idioms into his own compositions. The remaining songs were love ballads. The songs chosen for this gig were indicative of the identity Hardy wanted to preserve for Fast Folk. They were all original tunes, some of which have a traditional flare to them. Two of the songs dealt poignantly with social issues and expressed vividly his own political stance. By playing both the guitar and the mandolin, as well as having the band join him on some of the songs, Hardy demonstrated the diversity and musical expertise that he prefers to convey. Whether or not these ideals are perceived and comprehended by the audience, they appear to be conscious decisions on Hardy s part. He knows what he wants Fast Folk to be, and feels it is his responsibility to show the way. In many of the same ways Jack Hardy s performance epitomizes the identity of Fast Folk, so likewise did Lach s performance at the Fort that night in 1996. The Fort was packed with over 80 people, over twice the number at Hardy s show, and was loud and rambunctious in comparison to the rather placid crowd at the Fast Folk Cafe. Rather than sipping
148 이화음악논집 tea and politely listening, the audience at The Fort was boisterous and energetic, enhanced by alcoholic beverages, cigarettes and conversation. Usually, once the set begins at The Fort, the crowd quiets down even if the talking continues; this was not the case that night. The audience members in the back were particularly noisy, to the point of being rude a point that did not go unnoticed by Lach. Often he would make snide comments to entertain the audience, but a few of the interjections that night were directed at the audience and their lack of attention to the performer, namely himself. Lach was dressed in black jeans, a red cowboy cut shirt and a black tuxedo type jacket. Although he sometimes plays with a band, that night it was simply Lach, his guitar and a distortion pedal. He played thirteen songs that covered a vast array of topics, some about love, others about political situations. One moving song dealt with issues of teenage alcoholism. A portion of the song blamed the parents for not being aware and involved in the child s life, saying that the father of the youth was a successful businessman that only cared about work and money, and the mother was just an ostrich with her head in the sand. Two of the songs, which he frequently sings at the start of the Anti-Hoots, dealt with political issues. The first talked briefly about the sad state of affairs in this country, but conceded that there are three words which will make you feel better: Former President Bush... He goes on to extol the fact that there was no longer a Republican president in office, etc. The other song is one that got him recognition and lots of air play when it was first written. The song is about how he would like to vote for Hillary Clinton if he could. 20) Before, during and after each of these tunes Lach made
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 149 his political views unmistakably clear. Despite the fact that many of the songs Lach sings convey a sense of pain or disenchantment with society, he chose to end the concert on a very humorous note saying: This one is for Willoughby who s doing this thing on folk/anti-folk this is how we mess everything up. At which point he began singing an impromptu parody of This Land is Your Land and Pick a Bale of Cotton. If Jack Hardy or Lach were approached on the subject, I believe they would both claim that they have nothing in common with one another and are about as opposite as two musicians can get. In many respects that is true musically their creations are substantially different, and their musical backgrounds and training are not similar. Much can be said, however, about how these two men have gone about trying to create a scene and the identities that are ensconced therein. Both Hardy and Lach have a vision of what they want their organizations and venues to be: an environment where musicians feel accepted and have the opportunity to play their own music freely. Based on their individual convictions two opposing, yet similar scenes have been established. Much has changed in the intervening years since I conducted my original research of New York City s folk scenes in the mid-1990s. Fast Folk faded away, while the Anti-Folk still play on. Jack Hardy passed away in 2011, while Lach has expanded his influence beyond music into 20) As a reminder, this concert took place in 1996, while Bill Clinton was President of the US, but long before Hillary ran for any political office. Lach is still performing today (2016), and although I have not heard him sing for many years, I m sure he has much to say about the current election cycle in the States.
150 이화음악논집 theater in both the US and United Kingdom. Nevertheless, both Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk played significant roles in the music scene of New York City throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Many prominent musicians some of whom are still immensely popular to this day found their roots in one or both of these organizations. Musicians from both sides of Manhattan the East and West claimed that they were the true folk, whether based on sonic or ideological foundations. And, whether the respective musicians would admit it or not, both are correct; the Fast Folk musicians tended to create sounds akin to the folk musicians of the late 1950s-1970s, but the Anti-Folk certainly carried the torch of the voice of the disenfranchised masses. Thus, in essence, their battle for ownership of the label true folk was a futile one, but on the other hand, it made for good music and entertaining conversations. Keywords Folk Music, Fast Folk, Anti-Folk, Identity, Community 포크음악, 패스트포크, 안티포크, 정체성, 공동체
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 151 Bibliography Beckerman, Wendy. Interview. April 1, 1995. New York City, NY. Bergman, Duane. Interview. March 7, 1996. New York City, NY. Blacking, John. Making Artistic Popular Music: The Goal of True Folk. Popular Music 1(1981), 9-14.. Music, Culture and Experience. Edited by Reginald Byron. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1995. Bronson, B.H. Review of The American Folk Scene; Dimensions of the Folksong Revival. The Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council (1970), 167-169. Frith, Simon. The Magic That Can Set You Free : The Ideology of Folk and the Myth of the Rock Community. Popular Music 1 (1981), 159-168.. Taking Popular Music Seriously: Selected Essays. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 1981. Hardy, Jack. The Folk Revival. Fast Folk Musical Magazine 1/3 (1984), 2.. Interviews. April 1995-May 1996. New York City, NY. Lach. Interview. February 23, 1996. New York City, NY.. Interview. April 8, 1996. New York City, NY. Meyer, Richard. On Being Ignored. Fast Folk Musical Magazine 4/3 (1987), 2-3.. Looking Back and Around. Fast Folk Musical Magazine 4/5&6 (1988), 2-4.. An Interview with Jack Hardy: 1/18/91. Fast Folk Musical Magazine 5/7 (1991), 3-19.. What s in a Decade? Fast Folk Musical Magazine 6/3&4 (1992), 2.. Lost in the Works: A Brief History of Fast Folk s Recording. Fast Folk Musical Magazine 6/9-1(1993), 2-4.. Interviews. February 26 & 27, 1996. New York City, NY.. Interview. March 21, 1996. New York City, NY.
152 이화음악논집 Opatow, Sandy. Interview. March 2, 1995. New York City, NY. Redhead, Steve and John Street. Have I the Right? Legitimacy, Authenticity and Community in Folk s Politics. Popular Music 8/2 (1989), 177-184. Russett, Lucia. Interview. March 2, 1995. New York City, NY. Seitz, David. Interview. March 1, 1995. New York City, NY. Sharar, Linda. Interview. February 8, 1995. New York, NY. Walser, Robert. Running with the Devil: Power, Gender and Madness in Heavy Metal Music, Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1993.
A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan 153 국문초록 맨해튼에서자라난뿌리깊은나무 : 1990 년대뉴욕포크씬과정체성의문제 헤더윌로비 나는 이화음악논집 20집 1호 (2016년봄 ) 에 뿌리를찾아서 : 포크뮤직 의의미이해하기 라는제목의글을게재한바있다. 그글에서는, 포크뮤직이란무엇인가? 라는질문을둘러싼다양한견해와논의들을소개했다. 이글에서는, 1990년대중반뉴욕포크뮤직씬에공존했던두개의전혀다른포크뮤직 ( 패스트포크와안티포크 ) 사이의역학을비교 대조함으로써이문제를보다깊이고찰한다. 먼저이두그룹의존재양태와둘사이의차이점 / 공통점을이해하기위해짧은역사를돌아봄으로써, 두그룹사이의이데올로기적 음향적구분을좀더세밀하게살펴볼것이다. 다음으로는, 이그룹들의정체성을다루고, 그들의정체성과이미지가장소라는물리적위치와환경에의해어떻게영속되는지를살펴보고, 포크에기반한그룹과펑크에기반한그룹간의차이, 그리고각그룹의연주자와청중의구성을살펴볼것이다.
154 이화음악논집 Abstract A Deeply Rooted Tree Grows in Manhattan: Issues of Identity in New York City s 1990s Folk Scenes Heather A. Willoughby In the Spring 2016, Volume 20, Number 1 issue of the Journal of Ewha Music Research Institute, I published an article entitled, Digging up the Roots: Understanding what is meant by the term Folk Music. In that article, I elucidated various opinions and arguments regarding the question What is Folk Music? This article further investigates that question by comparing and contrasting the dynamics of two starkly different folk music scenes (Fast Folk and the Anti-Folk) in New York City in the mid-1990s. This article will look more closely at the ideological and sonic divide between these two groups beginning with a brief history of each in order to understand their existence and the distinction/similarities between them. The second section deals with the identity of the groups and how their identity and image is perpetuated by the physical location and décor of the venues, the differences generated by a folk vs. a punk heritage, and the demographics of the performers and audience members.
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 21) Peter M. Broadwell Contents Ⅰ. Schubert s Trinklieder: Overview and Historical Context Ⅱ. Social Encouragement and Discouragement of Trinklieder Ⅲ. Drinking Songs and Austrian Politics Ⅳ. Musical Revolutions and Schubert s late Drinking Songs Ⅴ. Conclusion Bibliography Abstract - Received by July 20, First Reviewed by August 30, Finally Accepted by September 12.
156 이화음악논집 Of the eight songs for solo voice and pianoforte that Franz Schubert composed on Sunday, October 15, 1815 a characteristically prolific day in his miracle year one is a short setting of a poem by the contemporary Austrian dramatist and critic Johann Ludwig Ferdinand von Deinhardstein, entitled Skolie (D.306). The song s title derives from the ancient Greek word skolion, which referred to a kind of communal drinking song performed at a symposium. According to Grove, its Grecian participants did not usually sing in chorus; rather, each recited part of a verse before passing a token (often a myrtle branch) to another member, who would then be expected to continue the song correctly or risk derailing the performance. 1) Yet whether sung competitively by the ancients at wine-soaked symposia or collectively by Schubert and his friends at one of their many social gatherings, the subject matter of both ancient and nineteenth-century skolia differs little from that of other drinking songs in different eras and parts of the world: they are often bawdy and raucous, and typically express some form of masculine communality and unity in the face of the various hardships and adventures of life: love, strife, labor, sickness or death. Such is certainly the case with Deinhardstein s latter-day Austrian skolion: Laßtim Morgenstrahl des Mai n Uns der Blume Lebenfreun, Eh ihr Duftentweichet! Haucher in den BusenQual, Glühtein Dämon in Pokal, Let us in the morning beams of May rejoice in the life of flowers, before their scent fades! If torment breathes in our bosom, a demon glows in our cups 1) Thomas J. Mathiesen, Skolion, Grove Music Online (Oxford University Press, 2016), http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/25937. One might assume that the consequences of failure were not too different from those of latter-day drinking games.
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 157 Der sieleichtverscheuchet. that can easily chase it away. Schnell wieunsdeifreudeküßt, As quickly as joy kisses us, Winkt der Tod, und siezerfließt; Death beckons, and joy flees; Dürfenwirihnscheuen? Must we fear it? Von der Mädchenlippenwinkt From the lips of maidens beckons Lebensatem, werihntrinkt, the breath of life; he who drinks it LächeltseinemDräuen smiles at [Death] s threats. 2) Schubert s song setting exhibits many of the hallmarks of what might be termed his early Trinklieder style: a lively, memorable tune presenting few difficulties for the singer, with a slightly more complex accompaniment producing a sense of sustained merriment through its sprightly figurations and rhythms, and a particularly Schubertian fidelity to the overall character of the poem, if not strictly to the meaning of the individual words. Here, Schubert s music expertly accentuates the rather tipsy atmosphere of Deinhardstein s text via the curious barring of the tune: the metrical structure of each stanza easily fits the accent pattern of two straight bars of 2/4 time (strong/weak, strong/weak), yet Schubert has chosen instead to place the beginning each textual unit on the second half of a bar, in the manner of a pickup (see Ex. 1). This metrical displacement thus gives the entire piece a slightly off-kilter feeling, suggesting a degree of inebriation. Similarly representative of Schubert s Trinklieder practice is the music s ability to retain its overall buoyancy despite the text s juxtaposition of convivial merriment and the omnipresent specter of death, which is a common poetic device in works of early nineteenth- 2) Translation modified from Emily Ezust, Skolie, The Lied and Art Song Texts Page (2004), http://www.recmusic.org/lieder/get_text.html?textid=4407.
158 이화음악논집 century literary German Romanticism. <Ex. 1> Skolie (D.306), composed by Schubert in 1815. Another noteworthy facet of this piece, first noted by Alfred Einstein, is the considerable resemblance in melodic outline and harmony if not rhythm and meter that the first four bars of this song bear to the rondo theme of the fourth movement of Schubert s B-flat major trio, Op. 99 (D.898) for pianoforte, violin and violoncello, composed a dozen years
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 159 later and in the same key as the song (see Ex. 2). 3) The similarity does not approach the level of self-quotation, especially given the absence from the song of both the rondo theme s characteristic B-natural appoggiatura and the skipping rhythm of its consequent portion. Einstein, for his part, does not rule out unintentional self-repetition, but cites the spiritual connection between the passages, while denying that this similarity plays a narrative role in the latter work: These symbols, with their remarkable similarity, grew at least from the same spiritual subsoil. But do not let the parallels give rise to the mistaken idea that Schubert was attempting to write program music. What he was trying to do was to expand and develop in a less constricted form what he had expressed in musical terms in the song, and to intensify this expression by means of musical, as opposed to poetical, contrasts. 4) <Ex. 2> The rondo theme of the finale of Schubert s B-flat major piano trio, Op. 99, D.898. 3) Alfred Einstein, Schubert: A Musical Portrait (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), 278. 4) Einstein, 278-9.
160 이화음악논집 Indeed, this resemblance, regardless of its intentionality, contributes a great deal to an interpretation of the finale of the B-flat trio, and more generally to an understanding of the differences between this outwardly sunny trio and its sister work, the anguished and conflicted E-flat trio, Op. 100, D.929. Schubert likely wrote both pieces within the final two years of his life, by which time he had in all probability realized that the steadily intensifying bouts of ill-health he had experienced for several years were likely to cut his life cruelly short. 5) Yet in comparison to the existential angst signaled by the harmonic and formal disjunctures of the E-flat trio s finale, the rondo finale of the B-flat trio manages to maintain an outward display of lightheartedness and high spirits. These features have even prompted speculation that Schubert actually wrote the B-flat trio up to a year earlier than the commonly accepted date of composition, thus placing its origins in a comparably happier time. Yet the link between the B-flat trio s finale and the equivocal merriment in the text of Skolie, and more broadly the finale s connection to the convivial yet subtly self-delusional nature of the drinking song, suggests that regardless of the exact date of its composition, the B-flat trio s cheerfulness may represent an especially convincing false bravado, perhaps one fortified by distilled spirits, in the face of approaching tragedy a facade which irrevocably shatters in the subsequent E-flat trio. 5) See John Reed, Schubert: The Final Years (New York: St.Martin s, 1972).
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 161 Ⅰ. Schubert s Trinklieder: Overview and Historical Context In addition to the Skolie (D.306) discussed above, Schubert wrote at least nineteen other vocal works over the course of his career that are directly concerned with the consumption of alcohol, most of which feature titles incorporating the words Trink, Tisch or Punsch. Very few of these pieces were published or received opus numbers during Schubert s lifetime, and subsequent generations of performers and commentators have tended simply to ignore these works or group them together with the composer s numerous other genre songs, some of which especially those related to other male-dominated pursuits like hunting and living rough in the woods are relatively similar in musical qualities and textual content. 6) Why then, one might reasonably ask, do these songs deserve concerted attention? Should one not, as apparently happened even in Schubert s day, consider the songs briefly before dismissing them as diverting but ultimately inconsequential novelties in favor of more serious and complicated portions of Schubert s oeuvre? One answer is that these works can provide potentially important conceptual keys to larger or more significant compositions, as the example above hopefully has demonstrated. Furthermore, when one considers the Trinklieder from a broader perspective, it becomes apparent that study of these works reveals interpretive details pertaining 6) Pianist Graham Johnson s liner notes to the Hyperion Schubert Edition recordings of the 1990s represent by far the greatest recent scholarly contribution to an appreciation of the historical context and musical content of these songs, though his notes are unfortunately lacking in references.
162 이화음악논집 to Schubert s personal and social life and the bourgeois political and cultural situation of Biedermeier Vienna, as well as insights about the prevailing Romanticist and nationalist sentiments within the German-speaking lands of Europe in the early nineteenth century. Table 1 provides a detailed though not necessarily comprehensive enumeration of the drink-related songs Schubert composed during his lifetime. A perusal of this list reveals many noteworthy features of his Trinklieder output, the most immediately obvious of which is their curious temporal distribution: the vast majority of these songs belong to the phenomenally productive miracle year situated about the composer s eighteenth birthday, while the remaining few appear on the opposite side of a nine-year lacuna stretching from 1816 to 1825.The creative explosion of 1815 certainly involved more genres than drinking songs, but unlike the Trinklieder, works in these other vocal and instrumental genres continued to appear during Schubert s less fecund years, albeit at a slower rate. The reasons for the disappearance of the drinking songs are difficult and perhaps impossible to isolate decisively, but there do exist certain likely influences: political factors such as the end of the Napoleonic wars and the increased policing of middle-class Viennese intellectual life, as well as personal factors including Schubert s changing professional and social status. In any case, it is fortunate that Schubert returned to the Trinklied genre during a similar creative outburst at the end of his short life, as these last few works especially the final two drinking-related part songs, Trinklied aus dem 16. Jahrhundert and Wein und Liebe display, like many compositions of Schubert s late period, remarkable compositional advancements via their distinctive, eclectic treatments of genres he had visited previously.
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 163 Even a superficial consideration of exemplary drinking song genres, from the Scandinavian snapsvisa to the Italian brindisi, makes it difficult to deny the prominent role that they have played at various levels of European musical culture from the early modern era to the present. Yet systematic historical studies or surveys of specific milieux such as the nineteenth-century German drinking song (the most relevant to this discussion) are rare. A brief perusal of the German art-music canon, however, reveals the considerable import of this genre to the Romantic movement, largely due to its ability to express both völkisch collective unity and personal subjectivity. Most directly pertinent to Schubert s immediate situation was Carl Maria von Weber s inclusion of the drinking number Hierimirdschen Jammertal in Der Freischütz to add depth to the opera s pseudo-medieval fairy tale setting. The opera s similarly rustic hunting choruses and German dances serve much the same function. In the years following Wagner s operatic revolutions, however, drinking songs were more likely to appear in Italian operas. Yet over half a century after Der Freischütz, Brahms populated his Academic Festival Overture with university drinking and hazing songs that he obviously expected would be quite familiar to his audience. And in the post-romantic era, Gustav Mahler, inspired by the potation-themed classical Chinese poems of Li Bai, situated the apotheosis of fin-de-siecle existential angst in the drinking songs Das Trinklied von Jammer der Erde and Der Trunkeneim Frühling, found in his vocal symphony Das Lied von der Erde.
164 이화음악논집 <Table 1> Schubert s drinking-related songs, 1813-1827 Deutsch catalog # Song title & incipit 75 Trinklied Freunde, Sammelteuch in Kreise 148 Trinklied Brüder! unser Erdenwallen Performing forces B, TTB, pf T, TTB, pf 169 Trinklied vor der Schlacht Double chorus, pf 183 Trinklied Ihr Freunde und du gold ner Wein 234 Tischlied (parody of medieval drinking song Meumestpropositum in tabernamori ) Solo w/chorus &pf Solo w/pf Author of text Year Themes Schäffer 1813 Friendship, brotherhood Castelli 1815 Fate, love, death, wine Körner 1815 Unity and courage in war Zettler 1815 Friendship, wine Goethe 1815 Brotherhood, universal goodwill 242 Trinklied im Winter TTB Hölty 1815 Drinking away the winter 248 Lob des Tokayers Solo w/pf 253 Punschlied Im Nordenzusingen (Polonaise-like) Solo or duet w/pf 258 Bundeslied Solo w/pf 267 Trinklied Auf! Jedersei nun froh TTBB, pf Gabriele von Baumberg 1815 In praise of Tokay wine Schiller 1815 In praise of nature, punch Goethe 1815 Brotherly love 1815 Happiness through unity
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 165 Deutsch catalog # Song title & incipit 277 Punschlied Vier Elemente, inniggesellt 306 Skolie Laßtim Morgenstrahl des Mai n 356 Trinklied Funkelndim Becher 426 Trinklied Herr Bacchus istein braver Mann Performing forces Author of text Year Themes TTB, pf Schiller 1815 Metaphor: life= making punch Solo w/pf TTBB, lost pf accomp. TTB, lost Deinhardst ein 1815 Drinking, spring, death Unknown 1816 Wine Bürger (likely) 1816 Drinking and merriment 427 Trinkliedim Mai TTB Hölty 1816 Drinking, love, springtime 492 Zum Punsche Solo w/pf 507 Skolie Mädchenentsiegelten 847 Trinkliedausdem 16. Jahrhundert Edit nonna, edit clerus 888 Trinklied Bacchus, feisterfürst from Antony and Cleopatra Solo w/pf Mayrhofer 1816 Drinking away sorrows Matthison 1816 Love, drinking TTBB Gräfer July 1825 Solo w/pf 901 Wein und Liebe TTBB J.C.F. Haug Shakespeare July tr. 1826 Mayrhofer & Bauernfeld Befor ejune 1827 Archaism, political commentary Drinking away worries Wine & love
166 이화음악논집 A perusal of the list of poets whose texts Schubert employed in his Trinklieder(see Table 1) reveals that German Romanticist writers had been taking advantage of the folk-related and idealist associations of drinking songs for several decades prior to when Schubert, Weber and other composers began setting them to music. This phenomenon highlights the delayed development of musical Romanticism relative to its literary counterpart, but also calls for a closer examination of the social and cultural influences that ultimately prompted composers like the young Schubert to appropriate such predominantly practical, oral song traditions for their art-song oeuvres. Ⅱ. Social Encouragement and Discouragement of Trinklieder In Schubert s case, the impetus to compose what eventually proved to be a great quantity of solo lieder and part songs has its main origins in the nature of musical and social life in Vienna, and secondarily from his social position as a young middle-class student in an artistic climate increasingly preoccupied with fanciful appropriations of Romanticist philosophy. As Otto Biba notes, musical life in early nineteenth-century Vienna was largely confined to private musical societies and small-scale family or salon performances. Other than the occasional public performance organized by a virtuoso or novelty musician for his own benefit, the public concert arena that shepherded the eventual ascendance of instrumental masterworks in German musical culture was only beginning to take shape at the end of Schubert s life. 7) Thus, it was due
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 167 to a fortunate coincidence of talent and public appetites that Schubert was able to employ his prodigious affinity for the setting of poetic texts to produce an enormous body of solo lieder, which represented by far his greatest critical and financial success during his lifetime. Possibly the foremost impetus for Schubert s composition of solo and small-group songs, and indeed his staggering explosion of creativity in 1815, however, was his membership at this time in a social circle of young men from the upper and middle classes, some of whom were older friends from his school. As McKay recounts, this Bildung Circle included a few artists and writers as well as several young men destined for the civil service, many of them amateur musicians but none of them composers. Thus, Schubert often composed songs based upon texts of interest to the circle that would then be performed during the group s frequent evening gatherings. 8) Made up as it was of young men, most of whom were for the first time enjoying relative independence from paternal authority, Schubert s circle of friends and acquaintances likely was given to indulging in alcohol and perhaps other intoxicants. Considering this context, it is not surprising that the bulk of Schubert s Trinklieder belong to this brief, relatively carefree period of his life. Furthermore, it is plausible to point to the compositional crises, shifting social ties and employment-related difficulties that Schubert experienced in his early twenties as factors contributing to the suspension of his Trinklieder composition. 7) Otto Biba, Schubert s Position in Viennese Musical Life, 19th-Century Music 3, vol. 2 (Nov. 1979): 107. 8) Elizabeth Norman McKay, Franz Schubert: A Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 45-50.
168 이화음악논집 As his stature in Vienna s musical culture increased during the early 1820s, Schubert accumulated an even larger and more influential circle of acquaintances, whose appreciation and encouragement of his musical compositions produced the legendary Schubertiades of the mid-1820s. The peculiar social dynamics and logistics of these gatherings, in comparison to the composer s youthful get-togethers with his school friends, seem to have precluded the performance of drinking songs, no matter how stylized. For one, the audience at the Schubertiades consisted almost unfailingly of mixed company indeed, such salons were conventionally hosted by women 9) producing an atmosphere in which the performance of such works was probably inappropriate. In contrast to the domestic environs of the Schubertiades, Viennese public ale houses had by Schubert s time joined coffeehouses in the exclusively male domain of the bourgeois public sphere. 10) Accordingly, even the briefest of surveys of his Trinklieder texts will reveal their overwhelmingly male-dominated point of view. A singular exception to this trend, however, is the text of Gabriele von Baumberg s poem Lob des Tokayers (In Praise of Tokay), which provides a somewhat rare female perspective on the benefits of alcohol consumption. Yet as Graham Johnson observes, the most noteworthy aspect of the song is how Schubert s music attempts to shoehorn this text, with its description of how Tokay wine gives courage to bashful blondes and brunettes, into the same masculine style of his other Trinklieder of this period an 9) Raymond Erickson, Vienna in its European Context, Schubert s Vienna, Edited by Raymond Erickson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 26. 10) McKay, 154. For a foundational definition of the bourgeois public sphere, see Jürgen Habermas, Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit.UntersuchungenzueinerKategorie der bürgerlichengesellschaft (Berlin, Luchterhand, 1981).
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 169 enterprise that yields only limited success. 11) Furthermore, contemporary accounts suggest that the primary musical component of a Schubertiade usually took place prior to the main meal and thus, presumably, before the time at which most alcoholic beverages would be consumed. In addition, the post-dinner festivities were much more likely to involve social dancing than drunken carousing about the pianoforte. 12) Thus, it is possible to view the Schubertiades as enacting amore mature, respectable and less youthfully exuberant mode of sociability, one in which there was little call for the composition of new drinking songs. Whence, then, the final three Trinklieder of the years 1825-7? One explanation (though not the only possible rationale, as the discussion of political and artistic influences below will suggest) points to the marked coarsening of Schubert s manners in his final years, a change in his behavior that prompted comment from many of his contemporaries. 13) Schubert s moods wings and increasingly self-destructive behavior were possibly a consequence of depression due to his declining health, but also perhaps a result of conformity to the newly emergent archetype of the suffering, antisocial artist so effectively enacted by Beethoven and others around this time. In any case, Schubert s oft-remarked habit in his last years of reveling with friends until the narrow hours of the morning and appearing unkempt or still inebriated the following day could have put him in mind of composing further paeans to wine and brotherhood. 11) Graham Johnson, Liner notes to An 1815 Schubertiad II, Hyperion Schubert Edition vol. 22 (London: Hyperion, 1994). 12) David Gramit, Music, Cultivation, and Identity in Schubert s Circle, The Cambridge Companion to Schubert, Edited by Christopher H. Gibbs (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 65. 13) McKay, 152-153.
170 이화음악논집 Ⅲ. Drinking Songs and Austrian Politics Additional consideration of the political, cultural and physical specifics of life in Schubert s Vienna facilitates further understanding of the origins and content of Schubert s Trinklieder. For one, it is significant that although Schubert composed the vast majority of these songs either during or immediately following the climax of the Napoleonic wars, only one such work directly features themes of war and Germanic nationalism. The song in question is the Trinkliedvor der Schlacht (Drinking Song before Battle), written to a text by the poet and early Schubert acquaintance Theodor Körner (1791-1813), who actually died while fighting the War of Liberation. The song is also remarkable for its performing forces: two unison choirs, likely representing two divisions of soldiers who are imbibing liquid courage and encouraging each other before joining the battle. Accompanying their antiphonal tête-à-têteis a martial accompaniment from the pianoforte that features gestures evocative of marching, trumpet fanfares and drumrolls. Although such themes of bravery and nationalist pride appear frequently in works of Schubert s battle song oeuvre and also his hunting songs, a perusal of the subject matter of Schubert s other Trinklieder reveals that such topics are more or less antithetical to the majority of Schubertian drinking songs. 14) These songs instead seem to focus on a more universal type of brotherhood, presumably related to the sensation of convivial, 14) For examples of the other two genres mentioned here, consider Schwertlied (Song of the Sword), written to Körner s final poem, which calls for actual saber-rattling sound effects at its climax, and also Schubert s Jägerlied D.204, with its repeated evocations of the deutsche Vaterland.
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 171 inclusive goodwill that often pervades social gatherings at which the guests have drunk a substantial amount of wine, beer or punch. Although Schubert s other drinking songs differ from Trinklied vor der Schlacht in general subject matter and performing forces, some of them especially the solo lieder share one of its themes, namely the proximity of suffering and death even in times of celebration. Such worries have provided motivation to enjoy the palliative effects of intoxication since time immemorial, but within the increasingly Romanticist, introspective aesthetic world of Schubert s Vienna, these sentiments carry extra significance. As any historian of the era can attest, death especially from disease was a constant threat and reality, in both wartime and peacetime. Yet the texts Schubert set for his drinking songs employ the specter of death in a particularly Romantic manner: specifically, as a way to intensify the subjective immediacy of the moment through the sharp juxtaposition of exuberance and morbidity. Unlike the other songs and instrumental works from the end of Schubert s life, however, in which premonitions of doom coexist with and often overwhelm more cheerful subjectivities, the alcohol-fueled high spirits and invocations of brotherhood in his Trinklieder tend to prevail, however equivocally, over the near-compulsory memento mori in their texts, no matter when he wrote them. Consider, for example, the Trinklied D.148 Brüder, unsererdenwallen, perhaps the most emotionally conflicted of Schubert s Trinklieder. In this work, the soloist and accompaniment both respond in a highly madrigalistic manner to each of the pitfalls mentioned in the text (the grave, misfortune, and love, respectively), sinking in both register and dynamic level and modulating to minor keys. Once the vocal trio joins in to commiserate with the soloist, however,
172 이화음악논집 the singers manage to climb back to the song s home key C major and proclaim the equivocally triumphant chorus: If we have to sink/fall down, Let s sink/fall down drunken from wine. The specifically uplifting nature of community in Schubert s drinking songs highlights perhaps their most important characteristic vis-à-vis their historical context: namely, the strong and potentially perilous political overtones that such upbeat, collective expressions carried in the world of Biedermeier Vienna. Indeed, this song genre s relationship to the prevailing political climate in Vienna may best explain, in concert with the other factors enumerated above, the disappearance of the Trinklieder from Schubert s compositional output and the complex nature of his final foray into this genre. As numerous commentators including Raymond Erickson have recounted, Vienna took on the political structure of a police state following the defeat of Napoleon, as the triumvirate of Emperor Francis I, foreign minister Count Clemens von Metternich and the chief of police Count Josef von Sedlnitzky attempted to control their potentially fractious subjects through increased state censorship, surveillance of its citizens, imprisonment and exile of those who espoused liberal political or religious views, and strict regulation of group gatherings. 15) In such an atmosphere of oppression and suspicion, Viennese musical and social life turned further inward, to private salon concerts and Hausmusik. 16) And, as critics like Lawrence Kramer have argued, Schubert s music at this time likewise sublimated its eccentricities 15) Erickson, 21-24. 16) See Ruth A Solie, Biedermeier Domesticity and the Schubert Circle: A Rereading, Music in Other Words: Victorian Conversations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 118-152.
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 173 and nonconformist tendencies to a more obscure, sub-textual level. 17) In any case, what is immediately apparent is that Schubert composed no new Trinklieder during a span of years centered around 1820, a period during which authorities throughout Germany were cracking down upon universities and student freedoms. 18) Schubert s drinking songs exhibit several characteristics that might have been politically objectionable in this trying time. The most obvious among these are the messages of social equality, unity and brotherhood that their texts often express directly. 19) The association of such democratic sentiments with the activity of public leisure-time drinking, a pastime in which Vienna s sub-aristocratic classes frequently indulged, might have appeared especially radical to the increasingly sensitive police and censors. Furthermore, drinking songs by their nature tend to imply the participation of large groups of people. Almost none of Schubert s Trinklieder explicitly call for more than one performer to a part, but even the solo songs, with their stentorian melodic lines, prove quite amenable to mass performance. And as the practices of later nineteenth-century choral societies such as Vienna s Schubertbund demonstrate, the part songs likewise lend themselves easily to choral performance, even if some of their rather complex vocal interactions might make their performance by intoxicated singers a potentially ear-straining proposition. 17) Lawrence Kramer, Franz Schubert: Sexuality, Subjectivity, Song (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 2-3. 18) Erickson, 23. 19) For an in-depth discussion of the intersection of the personal and the political in Schubert s songs, see Kristina A. Muxfeldt, Schubert s Freedom of Song, If Not Speech, Franz Schubert and His World, Edited by Christopher H. Gibbs and Morten Solvik (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014), 201-240.
174 이화음악논집 Moreover, many of the drinking-related part songs (including the Trinklied Brüder, unser Erdenwallen D.148 described above) enact a suspiciously progressive negotiation between the individual and the group, with a soloist (leader) provoking a unified, mass response from a larger group (the populace). 20) Considering these undercurrents, it is therefore remarkable that the first Trinklied Schubert composed after his nine-year caesura was also his most overtly political composition. Schubert set this part song, the Trinklied aus dem 16. Jahrhundert (Drinking Song of the Sixteenth Century), 21) to a Latin text by the contemporary Austrian writer Franz Gräffer. As Robert Sund muses in the liner notes to the Orphei Drängar performance of the piece (one of the very few published discussions of the work), It is possible that the censor had views about the irreverent text... In any event, the song was not printed until 1848, the year of the revolution. The nature of this irreverence is evident upon reading the translated Latin text: 20) Given the democratic musical and textual features of drinking songs, it should perhaps come as no surprise that the song that eventually became the national anthem of the United States of America began life as the signature song of the Anacreontic Society, an eighteenth-century English gentlemen s singing and socializing club. Despite the challenges it presents to amateur performers, the song made an otherwise smooth transition into a popular drinking song on both sides of the Atlantic before finding its niche as an American patriotic song when it was set to Francis Scott Key s text, inspired by the War of 1812. See also Brian Robins, Catch and Glee Culture in Eighteenth-Century England (London: Boydell Press, 2006). 21) Some editions designate the song s purported century of origin as the fourteenth, no doubt due to confusion caused by incorrect interpretation or copying of Roman numerals.
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 175 Edit Nonna, edit Clerus, The nun eats, the clerk eats, Ad edendumnemoserus; No one is late for the meal; Bibitille, bibitilla, He drinks, she drinks, Bibitservus cum ancilla; The servant drinks with the maid; Bibit Abbas cum Priore, The abbot drinks with the prior, Bibbitcoqus cum factore; The cook drinks with the factor, Et pro Regeet pro Papa As for the king and for the pope Bibuntvinum sine aqua, They drink their wine without water, Et pro Papa et pro Rege As for the pope and for the king Bibuntomnes sine lege; They all drink without restraint; Bibuntprimumetsecundo They drink the first and the second Donecnihil sit in fundo. Until there is nothing left. 22) A song describing the gluttony of the heads of state and Church, as well as their enjoyment of privileges not available to the lower classes (undiluted wine, in this case), would almost certainly have been politically dangerous, but perhaps Schubert felt protected by the Latin text and the faux-medieval origins of the piece presumably the text s purported origins in Rittgräff s Historische Antiquitäten are part of the joke. In all, the piece sounds like something Schubert might have written for the Unsinns-Gesellschaft ( Nonsense Society ), a secret satirical organization to which he belonged in the years 1817-1818: 23) there is certainly more than a hint of intentional comedy in the song s medieval-esque voice leading, replete with cross-relations, unisons, open fifths and bare octaves. 22) Adapted from Robert Sund, liner notes to Orphei Drängar: Schubert Male Choruses (Djursholm, Sweden: BIS, 2000). 23) Erickson, 24.
176 이화음악논집 Ⅳ. Musical Revolutions and Schubert s late Drinking Songs Why, then, did Schubert choose to compose a work like the Trinklied aus dem 16. Jahrhundert in 1825? One could possibly point to a slight relaxation in the vigilance of the Austrian censors and secret police at this time. Also, given that his status in Viennese society had increased over the years, Schubert might have felt more insulated from any official abuse he might face for having been party to such an incendiary work. And it is important to consider Schubert s aforementioned tendency to indulge in increasing levels of debauchery in these years as his health began its decline, which may at last have put him in the mood to compose more Trinklieder. There are, however, additional events related to the year 1825 that one might consider as motivations for his final outburst of Trinklieder, following a line of inquiry that has the potential to demonstrate again how a familiarity with Schubert s drinking-related songs can facilitate greater understanding of his late instrumental works. The most noteworthy of these happenings actually occurred in 1824: the premiere of Beethoven s Symphony No. 9. Schubert may have heard the work at this performance, and at any rate he certainly had the opportunity to hear it soon afterwards. Then, in 1825, Schubert returned to the Trinklied genre just as he began composing his Great C Major Symphony (D.944). The degree to which Schubert actively attempted to emulate the grand symphonic scale of Beethoven s final symphony is debatable, but there is no denying what Schumann called the heavenly length of the C Major Symphony. Nor is it easy to deny the resemblance between the
Schubert and the Politics of the Drinking Song in Biedermeier Vienna 177 tune that appears at the beginning of the final movement s development section and Beethoven s setting of Schiller s paean to Freude, schöner Götterfunken (see Ex. 3). What is most germane to the current discussion, however, is the fact that this putative reference to Beethoven s famous Ode to Joy tune emerges as a developmental variation of the finale s breezy G-major secondary theme, and that this theme s lighthearted musical characteristics identify it as a close spiritual relative of Schubert s Trinklied style. <Ex. 3> Developmental variation of the second theme of the finale of the Great C Major Symphony (D.944). The straightforward melodic contours and phrase structure and especially the jaunty rhythm of the second theme of the finale of Schubert s Great C Major symphony (Figure 4), with its off-beats emphasized via violin arpeggios and quarter notes, and its general resemblance to a kind of folk-like Ecossaise, would not seem out of place in a beer hall. Moreover, this theme first appears following a fortissimo brass fanfare, and its insouciant, tipsy subversion of this thundering introduction is somewhat analogous to the appearance of Beethoven s Turkish march in his ninth symphony, with its suspiciously jovial tenor solo. And just as Beethoven eventually melds the Turkish march into the finale of the symphony, so does Schubert s ersatz Ode to Joy melody,
178 이화음악논집 which developed out of the concluding gesture of the finale movement s secondary theme, eventually rejoin with this theme at the recapitulation to form a full antecedent-consequent phrase. Thus, whatever the exact stylistic provenance of this tune, it seems potentially quite significant that Schubert chose to fuse it with a melody reminiscent of Beethoven s famous anthem. <Ex. 4> The appearance of the second theme of the finale of Schubert s Great C Major Symphony.