Figure 9.1 포유강기각목물범, 바다사자, 물개, 바다코끼리식육목해달, 북극곰해우목매너티듀공고래목수염고래아목이빨고래아목 파충강거북목뱀목악어목 조강펭귄목슴새목기러기목도요목황새목두루미목사다새목아비목논병아리목
해양파충류 약 7,000 여종의파충류존재 대부분의어류처럼파충류는흔히냉혈동물이라불리는변온동물 그들의신진대사율은온도에따라변함
바다거북류 단지 7 종의바다거북이존재 모든바다거북류는산란을위해육지로돌아옴. 지구의자기장을감지함으로써회유 다른파충류와마찬가지로바다거북은수온의영향을받아성이결정되는현상 일반적으로높은온도아래서부화된알들은대부분암컷으로태어남. 지구온난화가바다거북과다른해양파충류의성비에크게영향을미칠가능성이우려
Figure 18.15
바닷새 조류는파충류에비해비행능력을포함하여몇가지현저한장점을지님 조류는항온동물이며흔히온혈동물로불리는데이것은새로하여금매우다양한환경에서살수있도록해줌 새의깃털은물이투과하지않아몸의체온을보존해주는역할을함 물의불투과성은꼬리밑부분에있는분비선으로부터분비되는기름에의해제공 새들은몸치장하는기간동안부리를이용하여이기름을깃털에바름
바닷새 전체 9,700 종의조류중약 3% 만이바닷새이지만, 그들은전세계적으로분포하며, 해양생물에미치는영향은큼 바닷새는대부분어류, 오징어류, 그리고저서성무척추동물의포식자 바닷새들은섬에배설물을배설함으로써구아노 (guano) 를축적한다
Guano Islands
바닷새 - 펭귄류 펭귄은차가운온도에적응 피부아래지방층이발달되어있어추위에잘견딤 18 종의펭귄중 1 종을제외하고는모두남극이나남반구의다른추운지역에서식 황제펭귄처럼큰펭귄은어류와오징어류를사냥 아델리펭귄과같은작은펭귄들은주로크릴을먹음 펭귄은가장추운시기에알을낳음으로써식물플랑크톤의생산성이높고먹이가가장풍부한남극의여름철에알이부화되도록함
펭귄의종류 친스트랩 (Chinstrap) 아델리 (Adelie) 젠투 (Gentoo) 록호퍼 (Rockhopper) 마카로니 (Macaroni) 임금 (King) 황제 (Emperor)
Antarctic Krill and Salps 12
연구개발배경 개요 MPA 의생태계특성 https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/expert-reaction-ross-sea-region-marine-protected-area-comes-into-effect
연구개발배경 개요 MPA 의생태계특성 크릴 / 남극은암치분포 펭귄 / 웨델물범 / 범고래 장보고과학기지 남극크릴 남극은암치 아이스크릴 아델리펭귄범고래웨델물범황제펭귄 조사지역 https://swfsc.noaa.gov/contentblock.aspx?division=aerd&id=22203&parentmenuid=42#
1차년도연구성과제1세부과제 : 로스해해양생태계구성 / 구조파악 시료확보정점 해양생물분석용시료확보 Cape Adare Cape Hallett X Cape Hallett X X X X x X CTD, water sample, and Bongo Rectangular net CTD 및물샘플 : 13 정점 Bongo net : 12 정점 Rectangular net : 7 정점 음향조사경로 : 690km 연구지역면적 : 16,820 km2
제 2세부과제 : 환경변화 지표종 아델리펭귄의 개체군 생태 연구 아델리펭귄 번식생태 둥지수 산출 둥지수 : 47,373개 1차년도 연구성과
둥지수 제 2 세부과제 : 환경변화지표종아델리펭귄의개체군생태연구 1 차년도연구성과 아델리펭귄번식생태 연도별둥지수변화 70,000 60,000 50,000? 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 조사년도 https://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/resources/data/adelie-census-data/cape-hallett)
제 2 세부과제 : 환경변화지표종아델리펭귄의개체군생태연구 1 차년도연구성과 장기생태모니터링캠프기초기반구축 현장조사캠프구축 해빙활주로 (Basler, Twin-otter) 헬기착륙지점 H 캠프지역 AMIGOS (Penguin Cam) ASPA No. 106 Cape Hallett 아델리펭귄군집
제 2 세부과제 : 환경변화지표종아델리펭귄의개체군생태연구 1 차년도연구성과 취식영역모니터링 바이오로깅을활용한펭귄의취식영역및행동모니터링 바이오로깅장비 : GPS, 수심기록계 (TDR) 연구기간 : 2017. 12. 21~24일 (4일간) 부착 : 아델리펭귄 20마리 (18마리데이터획득 ) 이동거리 : 145.71±63.2km 이동속력 : 3.04±0.51km/h 왕복시간 : 51.36±23.34h 이동범위 : 514.23±430.51 km2
제 2 세부과제 : 환경변화지표종아델리펭귄의개체군생태연구 1 차년도연구성과 잠수깊이모니터링 바이오로깅을활용한펭귄의취식영역및행동모니터링 부착장비 : 수심기록계 (TDR) 잠수깊이 : 27.65±5.57m 잠수시간 : 86.99±10.56s 주요잠수깊이 : 5~10m 구간 (37%) 최대잠수효율 : 10~15m 구간 (45%) 최대잠수깊이 : 107.86m
해양포유류 : 물범류, 물개류, 바다코끼리류 이들기각류 (pinnipdeia) 는차가운물에서서식 따뜻한체온을유지하기위해그들은피부아래두꺼운지방층 (blubber) 을지님 지방층은단열의역할, 영양분의저장고역할, 부력을제공 많은기각류는상당히큰몸을지니고있는데, 큰동물은작은동물에비해작은체적당표면적을갖게되어체열의손실이적기때문에체온유지에도움
바다사자와물개류 vs. 물범류
바다수달과북극곰
북극곰 북극곰은해양에서식하는식육목에속하는종류 북극곰은그들의생애상당부분을북극의 빙하 위에서보내는반수생동물 (p223)
북극곰
고래류와돌고래류
Figure 9.17
해양포유류의생태 - 유영 유영을하기위한몸의유선형은해양포유류의전형적인특징 바다사자들은시간당 35km, 대왕고래와범고래들은시간당 50km, 참돌고래의무리는시간당 64km 로유영
Figure 9.25
해양포유류의생태 - 잠수 해양포유류대부분은먹이를잡기위해상당히깊은곳에서오랫동안잠수 북방바다표범암컷은 400m 까지지속적으로잠수할수있는능력이있음 웨델바다표범은깊이 575m 에서 1 시간 13 분동안잠수했다는기록 향유고래는적어도 1 시간동안 2,250m 를잠수한다고알려져있음
해양포유류의생태 - 잠수 해양포유류가오랫동안깊이잠수하기위해몇가지중요한적응들이요구 첫째로, 그들은호흡하지않고오랜시간동안유영할수있어야함. 그러기위해잠수하기전에가능한많은산소를저장 호흡하는동안에폐에들어있는산소의교환은인간에서 20% 정도인데이들은 90% 나호흡하는동안에교환한다.
해양포유류의생태 - 잠수 해양포유류는또한공기로부터산소를흡수하고그들의혈액에효과적으로저장하는데잠수하지않는포유류보다상대적으로더많은혈액을가짐. 또한혈액은더높은농도의적혈구또는적혈구세포들은더많은헤모글로빈을운반 그들의근육은더많은산소를저장할수있는것을의미하는미오글로빈이풍부
해양포유류의생태 - 잠수 또한, 그들이잠수할때, 심박동수는서맥이라고알려진자동반사작용으로급격히느리게하여산소소비감소에도적응, 예를들면, 북방코끼리바다표범의심박동수는분당약 85 회에서약 12 회까지감소 하지만, 혈류는사지와장같이몸에꼭필요하지않는부분에는감소되지만, 뇌와심장같은생명을유지하기위한필수기관들은유지시킴
해양포유류의생태 - 잠수 일반적으로많은동물들은장시간잠수하는동안산소의부족또는결핍은혐기호흡을유발하는데이러한혐기호흡의생성물은경련을일으키고근육기능에유해한화합물인젖산을생성하는데, 해양포유류의조직들은잠수효율을증가시키기위해젖산축적에높은내성을가지도록진화 잠수하는동물들의또다른문제는공기중에많은양의로존재하는질소 ( 공기중 70%). 이러한질소는수심에따라높아지는압력때문에더많이용해되는데, 표면으로상승할때, 압력이갑자기줄어든다면용해된질소의일부는혈류에서작은거품형태를형성하여관절이나뇌와다른기관에혈액의흐름을막을수있는잠수병을유발
해양포유류의생태 - 잠수 인간의폐는육지처럼물속에서잠수하는동안매우유사하게작용 하지만, 해양포유류가잠수할때그들의폐는수압에밀려지는유연한늑골골격을가지고있어실제로폐가위축되어과다한질소의양이용해되는것을막음
해양포유류의생태 -Echolocation Among nektonic mammals, the sense of hearing has generated the greatest number of specialized adaptations, which suggests the great importance of hearing to these animals Clearly, that importance resides in another fact: that sound travels 4.7 times faster in water than in air and has a much greater communication range than does sight. As a result, most nektonic animals show strong development of sound-receiving structures
Echolocation In a terrestrial environment, enhanced sound receptions is usually indicated in external morphology through enlarged external ears Such structures would create an excessive drag on aquatic vertebrates; hence, they reduced or absent. To make up for their absence, aquatic mammals tend to develop echolocation for sound reception and production, which is similar like sonar to determine depth
Echolocation In echolocation or sonar, sound waves are sent out from a source in a particular direction, passing through the water until they encounter an object with a refractive index( 굴절률 ) different from that of water. When the waves strike such an object, they are reflected and returned to the source The time interval between the production of the sound and its movement to a target and back after reflection, is a measure of the distance between the source and the object
Echolocation
Echolocation Continual production of sound waves and sensory evaluation of the reflected waves during swimming give a nektonic animal a constant check on all objects in its path. Knowing the distances to objects makes it possible for the echolocation animal either to avoid them or to close in on them (if they are a source of food)
Echolocation Low-frequency sound is used by some animals to communicate among themselves in the water column
Whale counting Bio-acoustic counting
Echolocation Low-frequency sound is used by some animals to communicate among themselves in the water column It is in the toothed whales that echolocation reaches its zenith. These whales possess elaborate systems that permit them to send and receive sound waves varying over a wide range of frequencies.
Echolocation Low-frequency sound is used by some animals to communicate among themselves in the water column It is in the toothed whales that echolocation reaches its zenith. These whales possess elaborate systems that permit them to send and receive sound waves varying over a wide range of frequencies. Discriminatory ability of high-frequency sound of dolphins is remarkable. They can distinguish between two fish species of similar size and shape
Migrations Migration for breeding is a common characteristic of air-breathing marine vertebrates
Migrations A large number of marine mammals, birds, and reptiles undertake extensive migrations for breeding or other purposes Albatross tagged has shown that birds nesting in Hawaii regularly make foraging trips as far east as the west coast of North America to produce food for their chicks. These trips entail a round-trip distance of about 6,000 miles.
Migrations There may also be migratory differences between the sexes apparently due to different food habits
Use of Beaufort Sea as Feeding Habitat by Bowhead Whale (Balaena mysticetus) as Indicated by Stable Isotope Ratios Photo by Koski
75 o N Chuckchi Sea Barrow Beaufort Sea WBF EABF CBF S 65 o N Russia W Alaska 50 o N Bering Sea 180 o 150 o W 120 o W Figure 1. Bowhead whale migration pathway. S: summering ground, W: wintering ground, WBF: western Beaufort Sea, EABF: eastern Alaskan Beaufort Sea, and CBF: Canadian Beaufort Sea (from Schell et al. 1989).
75 o N Calanoid Copepods 200 m Russia Point Barrow Alaska Kaktovik 65 o N Yukon River 200 m 50 o N 180 o ( o /oo ) -20-22 to -20-24 to -22-26 to -24-26 150 o W 120 o W Figure 4. Carbon isotope ratios ( 13 C) for calanoid copepods in Alaskan waters (from Schell et al. 1998).
75 o N 200 m Euphausiid Russia Barrow Alaska Kaktovik 65 o N 200 m 50 o N 180 o 13 C ( o /oo ) -20-22 to -20-24 to -22-26 to -24-26 150 o W 120 o W Figure 5. Carbon isotope ratios ( 13 C) for euphausiids in Alaskan waters (from Schell et al. 1992).
Figure 6. Carbon isotope ratios along the baleen plate fromwhale 97KK2, a 13.2 m male taken at Kaktovik, Alaska by Herman Aishanna on 6 Sept 1997.
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 1997 Adults -24-23 -22-21 -20-19 -18-17 -16-15 1997-1999 Subadults -24-23 -22-21 -20-19 -18-17 -16 13 C Figure 23. 13 C and 15 N of each point from 0 to 50 cm along the baleen plates for 1986-1988 and 1997-1999. (a) adult whales (b) subadult whales. 97B8 97B11 97B12 97KK4 97KK1 97KK3 97B25 98KK1 98KK2 98KK3 99KK2 99KK3 97KK2
Migrations These migrations are of great importance, but, unfortunately, have been little analyzed Over the years, a number of hypotheses implicating a wide variety of sensory systems have been suggested to explain migration Proposed mechanisms are the use of some sort of celestial compass, odor or chemical imprinting (suggested for salmon), wave direction (in turtles), cueing on underwater topography, echolocation, the detection of thermal structure, and, most recently, the detection of the flux density of the earth s magnetic field
High resolution of the Earth's magnetic field from satellite data
Ecological Significance of Marine Mammals Food webs-cold waters Food webs-antarctic waters Food webs-tropical waters Marine mammals and birds play a larger role in the food webs of the polar regions than in those of the tropics
Ecological Significance of Marine Mammals Although the productivity of cetaceans is low, their biomass is large enough to be significant on an oceanwide basis Kanwisher and Ridgway(1983) have suggested that cetaceans probably consume more prey than the entire world s fisheries They estimated that the unexploited baleen whale populations there consumed 190 million metric tons of krill per year, approximately two times the current world fisheries catch
Ecological Significance of Marine Mammals After unparalleled overexploitation (90% reduced by hunting), populations of Antarctic birds and pinnipeds tripled following the destruction of the whales Whales also are important because their carcasses sink rapidly and provide a significant food resource for deep-sea benthic creatures
Ecological Significance of Marine Mammals
Ecological Significance of Marine Mammals After unparalleled overexploitation (90% reduced by hunting), populations of Antarctic birds and pinnipeds tripled following the destruction of the whales Whales also are important because their carcasses sink rapidly and provide a significant food resource for deep-sea benthic creatures Gray whales disturb large areas of the subarctic Bering and Chukchi seas on a scale equivalent to large geological or meteorological forces
Gray Whales Bottom Feeding
Ecological Significance of Marine Mammals Estes et al. (1998) hypothesized that the recent declines in sea otter populations in the western Aleutian Islands to predation by killer whales which caused large changes in marine ecosystem
Changes in sea otter abundance over time in the Aleutian Islans