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1 Current Photovoltaic Research 1(1) (2013) pissn 실리콘태양전지의기술현황및전망 박철민 1) ㆍ조재현 2) ㆍ이영석 1) ㆍ박진주 2) ㆍ주민규 2) ㆍ이윤정 2) ㆍ이준신 1,2) * 1) 성균관대학교에너지과학과, 수원시, ) 성균관대학교정보통신대학, 수원시, Technology Trends and Prospects of Silicon Solar Cells Cheolmin Park 1) Jaehyun Cho 2) Youngseok Lee 1) Jinjoo Park 2) Minkyu Ju 2) Youn-Jung Lee 2) Junsin Yi 1,2) * 1) Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon , Korea 2) College of Information and Communication Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon , Korea ABSTRACT: The current solar cell industry is experiencing a temporary plateau due to a sluggish economy and oversupply. It is expected that the solar industry can see similar growth to that of the recent past by overcoming the current situation, as there is growing demand globally for solar energy. The current situation led to restructuring of the world's solar industry, and domestic firms will need to have competitiveness through strategic approaches and proprietary technology to survive in the global solar market. Crystalline and amorphous silicon based solar cells have led the solar industry and occupied half or more of the market thus far. They will do so in the future PV market as well by playing a pivotal role in the solar industry. In this paper, the current status and prospects of silicon based solar cells, from materials to comprehensive and high efficiency technology that can emerge in the future, are discussed. Key words: Silicon Solar Cell, Silicon Material, Crystalline Silicon, Thin-Film Silicon, Next Generation Solar Cell, High Efficiency Solar Cell subscript QSC : quasi-single crystalline PERL : passivated emitter rear localized HIT : heterojunction with intrinsic thin-layer BCSC : buried contact solar cell IBC : interdigitated back contact LID : light-induced degradation a-si : amorphous silicon μc-si : micro-crystalline silicon nc-si : nano-crystalline silicon MEG : multiple-exciton generation 1. 서론 세계태양광산업은 2004년 ~ 2008년까지연평균 54.7% 의높은성장률을기록했으나유럽지역의금융위기이후수요위축 *Corresponding author: yi@skku.ac.kr Received March 20, 2013; Revised April 10, 2013; Accepted April 18, 2013 으로 2009년에는 15.9% 로성장률이크게둔화되었다. 2010년독일과이탈리아시장의폭발적인성장 ( 독일 10 GW 신설, 이탈리아 1.27 GW 신설 1) ) 에힘입어전반적인태양광시장이성장세로돌아섰으나 2012년들어세계태양전지및모듈생산량의 50% 이상을점유하고있던중국기업들의저가화공세에의해많은기업들이도산하거나위기에처하면서현시점에서의전반적인태양광시장은정체기에있다고할수있다. 현재태양광시장은수요감소와공급과잉으로인한일종의구조조정기간을거치고있다고본다. 그러므로현상황에서품질과가격경쟁력이떨어지는업체는이구조조정이불가피하다고생각된다. 그러나장기적으로는과거의유럽중심의태양광수요가미국과중국등 G2국가 로확대되면서세계태양광시장은지속적인성장을할것으로본다. 현재의태양광시장이불황이라고해서세계적인태양광에너지에대한수요가감소한것은아니기때문이다. 실리콘을기반으로하는태양전지는현재태양전지시장의약 95% 이상을차지하고있다. 양자점, 나노태양전지와같은차세대태양전지기술들이개발되어지고있으나향후에도태양전지시장에서실리콘기반의태양전지가차지하는비율은과반을상회할것으로예상된다. 따라서이글에서는실리콘을기반으로하는태양전지의현황과전망에대해기술하고자한다. c 2013 by Korea Photovoltaic Society This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 11
2 12 C.M. Park et al. / Current Photovoltaic Research 1(1) (2013) 2. 태양전지용실리콘웨이퍼의소재기술동향및전망 최근수년간양적인성장을지속해온태양전지산업은 80% 이상의시장점유율을가진결정질실리콘태양전지산업의성장이었다. 그러나 2009년글로벌금융위기이후에결정질태양전지는공급이수요를초과하게되었고, 이는곧태양전지시장의가격붕괴현상을초래하게되었다. 이로인하여태양전지용결정질실리콘웨이퍼소재인폴리실리콘의가격하락이시작하게되었고, Fig 2.1에서확인할수있듯이현재금융위기이전의가격보다약 4배이상하락하게되었다. 태양전지용폴리실리콘의가격이하락하면서고효율의태양전지웨이퍼가격이낮게형성되어그결과저효율의저가태양전지웨이퍼제조기술인리본 (Ribbon) 웨이퍼의제조기술이시장에서사라지게되었다 3). 이러한사례를통하여시장의가격논리에사장되지않는웨이퍼제조기술의방향은최소비용으로고효율태양전지제작이가능한고품질의웨이퍼를제작할수있는기술이어야한다. Fig 2.2에서볼수있듯, 고효율태양전지를위한결정질실리콘웨이퍼의제조비용을분석해보면, 웨이퍼원자재인폴리실리콘의구매비용보다웨이퍼제작공정에서발생되는부대비용이더많음을알수있다. 더욱이폴리실리콘의가격이낮아지면상대적인웨이퍼제조비용의비중이더욱증가하게된다. 태양전지용실리콘웨이퍼의가격경쟁력을고취하기위한 노력들은 Fig. 2.3, 2.4에서와같이주로웨이퍼의생산비용을최소화하는기술에초점이맞추어져있다. 최근에는 Fig. 2.5와같이좋은다결정 Casting 공법의기술개발을통해준단결정실리콘잉곳을생s산하는고효율의 QSC잉곳에대한연구가활발히진행되고있다 4). Fig. 2.3 잉곳의생산기술전망 Fig. 2.4 웨이퍼절삭기술전망 Fig. 2.1 기간별폴리실리콘의시장가격변화 2) Fig. 2.2 태양전지용웨이퍼제조비용분석 Fig. 2.5 결정성에따른태양전지변환효율과 QSC 공정기술의개요
3 C.M. Park et al. / Current Photovoltaic Research 1(1) (2013) 결정질실리콘태양전지의현황 결정질실리콘태양전지는현재까지도태양전지시장에서가장많은부분을담당하고있으며, 시중에시판되는태양전지중에서높은효율및낮은생산단가로큰이점을지니고있다. 결정질실리콘태양전지는크게단결정 (Single crystalline) 과다결정 (Multi-crystalline) 으로나뉘며, 기본적으로 p-n 동종접합 (Homojunction) 으로서태양전지에사용된다. Fig 3.1에연도별실리콘태양전지의최고변환효율변천사를도시하였다. 1950년대에벨연구소에서최초로개발된실리콘태양전지 5) 는 90년도에이르러서호주의 UNSW (University of New South Wales) 대학에서 PERL 구조로 24% 의변환효율을달성하였다 6). PERL구조의태양전지는여전히단결정실리콘태양전지분야에서최고의효율을기록하고있으며, 초고효율태양전지를달성하기위한결정질태양전지의여러가지구조중에서가장많이거론되고있는구조이다 (Fig 3.2참조 ). 그러나, 높은효율을갖는 PERL구조의태양전지를양산화하기에는복잡하고많은공정순서와그에따른생산비용의증가가저가화및양산화측면에서걸림돌이되고있는상황이다. 위에서언급된바와같이연구실에서개발된초고효율태양전지와양산화를목적으로하는태양전지사이에는효율및생산비용부분에서큰차이가있다. 양산을목적으로하는일반적 인구조의태양전지의경우간단한구조와빠른생산속도및저가화된소재를사용하여와트당생산단가를최소화하고있다. 하지만이런일반적인구조의태양전지는 18 ~ 19% 의양산효율에머무르고있는상황이라 25% 의변환효율을갖는초고효율태양전지와는여전히큰차이를보이고있다. 일반적인구조를갖는양산형태양전지의효율을극복하기위해서태양광기업들은새로운구조의태양전지를양산화하기시작했는데 Fig 3.3에정리된것처럼, Sanyo사의 HIT, BP Solar 사의 BCSC, Sunpower사의 IBC 태양전지가대표적인새로운구조의양산형고효율구조로손꼽힌다 7-9). Sanyo사의 HIT구조의경우비정질실리콘을이용해서이종접합을구현하였으며, Sunpower의 IBC셀은모든접합및전극형성을후면으로배치하여전면에서태양광의흡수효율을최대화하고산화막을이용하여표면의결함을최소화하여변환효율을향상시켰다. BP Solar의 BCSC는 Laser Grooving 및무전해도금을이용하여기존스크린인쇄전극형성에비해서높은태양광의흡수를이루어내었다. 일반적인구조의결정질실리콘태양전지와비교했을때, 위의구조들은높은효율과양산화를동시에확보할수있었지만, 복잡한구조에따른전용장비의사용및모듈제작에있어서상대적으로비용적문제점이초래되었다. 이렇듯새로운구조의태양전지들은와트당생산단가와변환효율의상승이라는두가지측면사이에서의 Trade-off를늘고려해야하는상황이다. 또한광열화현상 (LID) 에의한태양전지및모듈의생산전력감소역시 Boron도핑된 p-type기판을쓰는태양전지에서는지속적으로문제가제기되고있는상황이다 10). 광열화현상에의한태양전지및모듈의생산전력감소를방지하기위하여기존에 p-type기판위주로형성되었던태양광시장이 n-type기판을이용한태양전지의개발및양산으로재편되고있다 11,12). 결정질실리콘태양전지분야의가장큰숙제는고효율태양전지를낮은생산단가로제작하여와트당생산단가를낮추는점이라고할수있다. 그러기위해서는태양전지내에서의광학적 전기적손실을최소화하고, 고효율태양전지제조를위한공정의 Fig. 3.1 실리콘태양전지의변환효율변천사 Fig % 의변환효율을기록한 PERL 구조 Fig. 3.3 다양한구조의양산형실리콘태양전지 (a) IBC, (b) BCSC, (c) HIT
4 14 C.M. Park et al. / Current Photovoltaic Research 1(1) (2013) Table. 3.1 결정질실리콘태양전지의기술전망 세부사양 Wafer Emitter R S 년도 1990's (300 wfs/h) 2000's (1,000 wfs/h) 2010's (2,500 wfs/h) 2020's (5,000 wfs/h) Type P-type(4") P-type(5") P-type(6") P-type(8") N-type Thickness (μm) Ingot Structure R S (ohm/sq) 500 Si 25$/kg (100kg ingot) Homogeneous Emitter 350 Si 30$/kg (100kg ingot) Homogeneous Emitter 200 Si 120$/kg (600kg ingot) Homogeneous Emitter + SE Si < 20$/kg (1200kg ingot) SE, PERC, MWT, EWT Low R S-70 HighR S (Yield?) MWT, EWT, BIC, Tandem 120 Front ARC TiO 2 SiN X SiN X SiN X Al 2O 3/SiN X Method Screen Print Screen Print Screen Print Screen Print Plating Layer Transfer Screen Print Plating Layer Transfer Metallization Material Ag Ag Ag Al, Ni+Cu+Sn Al, Ni+Cu+Sn Width(μm) Thickness(μm) BSF AI-BSF AI-BSF AI-BSF Local BSF Local BSF Rear Passivation N/A N/A N/A SiN X, SiO 2, AI 2O 3 SiN X, SiO 2 Table. 4.1 Records of thin film silicon technologies Classification Eff.(%) Area(cm 2 ) V oc(v) J sc(ma/cm 2 ) FF(%) Test Centre(DATE) a-si 10.1 ± NREL(2009/07) nc-si 10.1 ± JQA(1997/12) a-si/μc-si(tandem) 11.9 ± NREL(2010/08) a-si/μc-si/μc-si(triple) NREL(2012/07) Source : Solar & Energy, July 2011 and NREL PV efficiency chart 최소화및혁신적인제조설비의제작이뒷받침되어야한다. 90년대부터의결정질실리콘태양전지의기술현황및전망에대한요약이 Table 3.1에요약되어있다. 위에서언급한것처럼, p-type을위주로형성된결정질실리콘태양전지시장은 n-type을기반으로재편될예정이며, 기존의일반적인태양전지구조에서벗어나선택적에미터형성기술및후면국부적접합구조가일반적인양산기술에적용되어양산화및고효율화가진행될것이다. 또한, 기존의스크린인쇄방식에서벗어나 Plating 이나 Layer Transfer와같은새로운전극형성방법이사용되어 Shadowing Loss 및전극부분에서의직렬저항성분을최소화하여광학적 전기적손실을최소화하는기술이적용될것이다. 4. 박막실리콘태양전지현황 4.1 박막실리콘태양전지기술현황 박막실리콘태양전지는접합구조에따라단일접합 (Single junction), 이중접합 (Tandem), 삼중접합 (Triple junction) 구조의태양전지로나눌수있다. 단일접합의 1세대를시작으로다중접합의 5세대 13-15) 까지진화하면서 6 ~ 7% 대였던효율이 R&D 수준의 16% (< 1 cm 2, 초기효율 ) 대에까지도달하였고, 특히일본의 Kaneca는 8% 효율이하에서 20 MW급양산을시작으로 4 세대급 (11 ~ 12% 효율 ) Pilot 생산라인을보유하여양산기반을구축하였다. a-si을기반으로한단일접합, 이중접합구조모두 Oerlikon 연구소의기술이독보적이며각각 10.1 (1 cm 2 ), 11.9% (1.227 cm 2 ) 의효율을나타내고있으며 Kaneka가 2 μm 두께의얇은박막을증착하여 nc-si 구조의박막실리콘태양전지로 10.1% (1.2 cm 2 ) 의기술을보유하고있다. LG전자가 a-si/μc-si/ μc-si을사용한 (1.006 cm 2 ) 삼중접합구조가안정화효율에서 13.44% 16) 기록 (NREL인증) 을보유하고있다 (Table 4.1참조 ). 4.2 박막실리콘태양전지시장현황실리콘박막태양전지의많은기술개발에도불구하고아직까지시장점유율 (5.1%, 2010 Solar & Energy) 17) 이낮은이유로는결정질실리콘태양전지에비해낮은변화효율과낮은생산용량에의한것으로분석할수있다. 이를개선하기위해서는첫째로광경로를길게하여광흡수층내에서빛을많이흡수할수있도록하는광캡처기술및 High Quality 다중접합구조개발의노력이이루어지고있다. 또한박막태양전지의양산화에대
5 C.M. Park et al. / Current Photovoltaic Research 1(1) (2013) 15 Table. 4.2 Technology goals and key R&D issues for thin film silicon technologies Thin film technology Efficiency targets in % (commercial modules) Industry manufacturing aspects Selected R&D areas High rate deposition Roll-to-roll manufacturing Packaging 10% 12% 15% Large area deposition processes Improved substrates and transparent conductive oxides Simplified production processes Low cost packaging Improved cell structures Improved deposition techniques Source : Technology Road map Solar photovoltaic energy, OECD, International Energy Agency (IEA) ) Large high-efficiency production units Availability of manufacturing materials Recycling of modules Advanced materials and concepts 한기술확보를위하여대면적박막제조시박막의균일도확보, 대면적의패터닝에따른손실면적최소화등대면적모듈일괄공정 (Inline Turnkey) 생산을위한기술연구및개발이진행될수있도록국가적인차원에서계획, 추진중에있다. 하지만우리나라의경우미국, 일본, 유럽등에비해태양전지기술개발및양산화는초기단계에머물러있다. 그러나박막태양전지분야는현재우리나라가전세계적으로선도하고있는반도체와 LCD 및 PDP 디스플레이장비및소재기술을이용할수있고이와관련된많은인프라가구축되어있기때문에향후박막태양전지분야의원천기술과양산기술에대한정부및기업의투자가이루어진다면반도체및디스플레이분야를이어우리나라를선도하는기술및사업분야가될수있을것으로기대된다. Table 4.2는박막태양전지분야의 2030년까지산업체및 R&D에서 Key Issue 및목표효율이다. Fig. 5.1 (a) 벌크상태반도체에서고에너지전자가포논을방출하며에너지를잃는과정, (b) 양자점에서고에너지전자가다른전자로에너지를전달하여다른전자 - 정공쌍을형성하는다중여기자형성과정 5. 차세대태양전지 5.1 양자점태양전지기존의태양전지의광전변환방법은흡수되는광자의에너지에는무관하고오직흡수된광자의수에비례하여전자- 정공쌍을생성하였다. 그리하여높은에너지를가지는광자의남는에너지가열로손실되므로매우비효율적이다. 최근양자점과나노기술을이용하여기존의광전변환메커니즘의비효율성을개선한신개념의 MEG 태양전지에대한연구개발이활발히추진되고있다. MEG는높은광에너지를흡수하여여기된전자와정공이낮은에너지상태로천이하면서 1개의전자 -정공쌍을만드는데 (Fig 5.1(a)), 이때낮은에너지상태로천이되면서발생된에너지를가전자대의전자가흡수하여다시전자- 정공쌍을만들어 2개혹은여러개의전자 -정공쌍을생성하는 (Fig 5.1(b)) 원리이다 19-21). MEG 광전변환메커니즘을이용한태양전지는기존태양전지에비해빛에너지를보다효율적으로전기에너지로전환이가능하기때문에획기적인효율향상을기대할수있다. Fig. 5.2 실리콘나노와이어의태양전지구조 5.2 나노와이어태양전지결정질실리콘태양전지의경우자외선영역에서의광흡수계수가작다. 그에따라표면적이커서광흡수율이높고효율적인전하분리측면에서장점을가지는실리콘나노와이어를이용한태양전지가유망한구조로부각되고있다. (Fig 5.2참조 ) 실리콘나노와이어에입사된빛은와이어내부에서여러차례발생하는반사로인해, 빛이이동하는거리가와이어길이보다길어져서높은광흡수를가능하게한다 22). 이와같이빛의이동경로를높여주는것이나노와이어의주된강점이다. 또다른효과로는 Radial 접합을적용하였을때나노와이어의지름방향으로움직이는캐리어가갖는확산거리가매우짧아서짧은수명을갖는캐리어의수집량을증대시킬수있다 23).
6 16 C.M. Park et al. / Current Photovoltaic Research 1(1) (2013) 최근에는고효율의태양전지를위해나노와이어태양전지를기반으로적층형구조에대한연구가활발히추진되고있다 24). 6. 결론 세계태양광시장은 2015년까지연평균성장률을 18% 로전망하고있다. 우리나라의경우신재생에너지총매출의약 70% 를점유할만큼태양광산업은신재생에너지분야의핵심으로자리매김하고있다. 향후에도결정질태양전지의높은점유율이예상되며, 박막태양전지또한꾸준한성장이전망된다. 결정질실리콘분야의경우, 지속적성장을하고있는중국의추격을뿌리치기위해서핵심기술위주의투자가진행되어야한다. 지금까지는 Fast Follower 의입장이었다면, 지금부터는선택과집중을통한 First Mover 의역할을수행하기위해서소재에서부터셀, 모듈, 시스템까지이르는 Value Chain의최적화와핵심기술확보를통한시장지배력을확보할필요가있다. 박막태양전지의경우개발진행중인적층형태양전지연구기반을바탕으로, 동작특성규명, 단위박막및계면최적화, 열화특성규명연구를통한태양전지의효율향상연구가필요하며정부예산지원, 기업의적극적인참여, 연구소의활발한연구개발을통한활성화가이루어져야한다. 결정질실리콘과박막의균형적개발및기술간의융합, 반도체 / 디스플레이기술의인프라를기반으로한실리콘기반태양전지기술개발연구는국가경쟁력확보를이룰수있는기술로자리매김할수있을것으로기대한다. References 1. 이민식, 황교민 글로벌태양광산업의전망과전략적시사점, 산은경제연구소, Global: Clean Energy: Solar Equity Research Goldman Sachs Research estimates, J. P. Kalejs, Silicon ribbons and foils state of the art, Sol. Energy mater. Sol. Cells, 72, , X. Gu, X. Yu, K. Guo, L. Chen, D. Wang, D. Yang, Seed-assisted cast quasi-single crystalline silicon for photovoltaic application: Towards high efficiency and low cost silicon solar cells, Sol. Energy mater. Sol. Cells, 101, , D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, and G. L. Pearson, A New Silicon p n Junction Photocell for Converting Solar Radiation into Electrical Power, J. Appl. Phys, 25, 676, J. Zhao, A. Wang and M. A. Green 24.5% Efficiency silicon PERT cells on MCZ substrates and 24.7% efficiency PERL cells on FZ substrates, Prog. Photovoltaics, 7, 471, M. Taguchi, Y. Tsunomura, H. Inoue, S. Taira, T. Nakashima, T. Bada, H. Sakata, E. Maruyama, Proc. 24 th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 1690, S. R. Wenham, C.B Honsberg, M. A. Green, Buried contact silicon solar cells, Sol. Energy mater. Sol. Cells, 34, , M. D. Lammert, R. J. Schwartz, The Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cell: A Silicon Solar Cell for Use in Concentrated Sunlight, IEEE Trans. on Electron Devices, 24, 337, B. Lim, S. Hermann, K. Bothe, J. Schmidt, R. Brendel, Proc. 23rd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, A. Weeber, R. Naber, N. Guillevin, P. Barton, A Carr, D. Saynova, T. Burgers, B. Geerligs, 24 th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 891, A. R. Burgers, L. J. Geerligs, A. J. Carr, A. Gutjahr, D. S. Saynova, X. Jingfeng, L. Gaofei, X. Zhuo, W. Hongfang, A. Haijiao, H. Zhiyan, P. R. Venema, A. H. G. Vlooswijk, 26 th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 1144, X. X. Zheng, X. D. Zhang, S. S. Yang, S. Z. Xu, C. C. Wei, Y. Zhao, Effect of the n/p tunnel junction on the performance of a-si:h/ a-si:h/mc-si:h triple-junction solar cells, Sol. Energy mater. Sol. Cells 101, 15, J. Yang, A. Banerjee, and S. Guha, Triple-junction amorphous silicon alloy solar cell with 14.6% initial and 13.0% stable conversion efficiencies, Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 2975, B. Yan, J. Yang, and S. Guha, Amorphous and nanocrystalline silicon thin film photovoltaic technology on flexible substrates, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 30, 04D108, Photon International, March 2005 ( 18. Technology Roadmap Solar photovoltaic energy, OECD, International Energy Agency (IEA) R. D. Schaller and V. I. Klimov, High Efficiency Carrier Multiplication in PbSe Nanocrystals: Implications for Solar Energy Conversion, Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, M. C. Beard, R. J. Ellingson, Multiple exciton generation in semiconductor nanocrystals: Toward efficient solar energy conversion, Laser & Photon Review, 2, , R. J. Ellingson, M. C. Beard, J. C. Johnson, P. Yu, O. I. Micic, A. J. Nozik, A. Shabaev and A. L. Efros, Highly Efficient Multiple Exciton Generation in Colloidal PeSe and PbS Quantum Dots, Nano Letters, 5, , P. R. Bandaru and P. Pichanusakorn, An outline of the synthesis and properties of silicon nanowires, Semicond. Sci. Technol., 25, , D. R. Kim, C. H. Lee, P. M. Rao, I. S. Cho, X. Zheng, Hybrid Si Microwire and Planar Solar Cells: Passivation and Characterization, Nano Lett. 11, 2704, M. Konagai, FUTURE-PV Innovation" - Si Nanowire Solar Cells Aiming at 30% Efficiency, 6th Int'l Photovoltaic Power Generation Expo, 2013.
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