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1 The Korean Journal of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Room A 신생폴립을설명하는암화경로와대책 박동일 성균관대학교의과대학강북삼성병원소화기내과 Carcinogenesis Pathway for the Newly Developed Polyp and Coutermeasures Dong Il Park, M.D., Ph.D. Department of Internal Medicine, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea 서론중간암이란대장내시경검사후제시된대장내시경추적검사기간내에발생하는암을말한다. 중간암이발생하는원인으로이전대장내시경검사에서병변을간과한경우나발견된폴립을완전절제못해잔여병변이남는경우등과같이대장내시경술기와관계지어생각할수있는데, 실제로중간암이크기가작고, 우측대장에서많이발생하고, 대장내시경수련을받은소화기내과의사보다가정의학과의사에게대장내시시경검사를받은경우발생률이높고, 폴립절제술을받은대장분절에서발생하는경우가 27% 였다는연구결과는시사하는바가크다. 1,2 하지만일부중간암은독특한분자생물학적기전에의해성장속도가매우빠르게발생할수있다는가설이제시되고중간암이산발암에비해미소위성체불안전성 (microsatellite instability, MSI) 나 CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP) 발생률이높다는연구결과가제시되어주목받고있다. 3,4 특히무경성톱니샘종 (sessile serrated adenoma, SSA) 은 CIMP양성대장암의전구병변으로주로우측대장에서발생하고대장내시경도중간과하기쉽기때문에최근많은관심을받고있다. 본고에서는 SSA의발생기전인톱니신생물경로 (Serrated neoplasia pathway) 를중심으로알아보고자한다. 본론 1. 톱니폴립 (Serrated polyp) 의분류톱니폴립이란폴립을구성하는 crypt 상피의모양이톱니모양으로주름잡힌것을말하며, 상피세포의종류나 crypt의모양에따라여러가지로분류된다 (Table 1). 5 SSA는 crypt기저부가확장되면서점막근판과평행하게자라나 T자나 L자모양의 crypt를형성하기때문에 serration 은주로 crypt의기저부에서만관찰된다. 과형성폴립은주로좌측대장에호발하는 goblet cell type과 goblet cell의수가감소하면서점액생성으로인한낭을형성하는 microvesicular type으로구분된다. 전통톱니샘종 (Traditional serrated adenoma; TSA) 은 serration된 crypt가이형성상피세포로구성되면서융모상피가장관내로팽창하는모양으로자라며간혹이소성 crypt를형성한다. 2. 톱니경로의분자생물학적병인 1) CIMP: DNA의 cytosine 염기에 methyl 기가붙는것을메틸화라고하는데이과정을통해 DNA염기서열의변화없이유전자의기능이억제될수있다. Cytosine 기와 guanine 기가연속적으로나란히붙어있는곳을 CpG island라고하는데이는모든유전자 promoter 부위의약 50% 에서관찰된다. 암억제유전자 promoter 부위의 CpG island에서과메틸화가일어나면암억제유전자의기능이소실되어암이발생할수있는데대표적인예가 hmlh1 유전자과메틸화에의한암발생이다 (Fig. 1). 메틸화는나이가들면서자연스럽게발생하는 A형과메틸화와암발생과관여되어발생하는 C형과메틸화가있다. C형과메틸화는대장암환자의 20-30% 에서관찰되는데이를 CIMP라한다. CIMP 양성은 5개의 marker 중 4가지이상에서과메틸화가발견될경우로정의하는데일반적으로 MVHP 7%, SSA 48% 가 CIMP 양성이고, MSI 양성산발성대장암의대부분은 CIMP 양성이나반대로 CIMP 양성대장암의 50% 는 hmlh1 과메틸화나 MSI 음성이다. 6,7 CIMP는과형성폴립증후군과 SSA에서관찰되는데특히과형성폴립증후군환자의정상대장점막에서도관찰되기때문에톱니경로의 field effect를설명할수있고 MVHP 에서 SSA로진행하는비교적초기과정에관여함을알수있다. 8 2) BRAF: 톱니경로에서두가지기념비적인발견은 CIMP와암유전자 BRAF 돌연변이이다. 암유전자 BRAF 돌연변이는 MSI 양성대장암과톱니폴립에서관찰된다. KRAS와더불어 BRAF는 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) 경로에관여하는중요유전자인데 BRAF를지속적으로활성화시키는점돌연변이 (V600E) 로 MAPK 경로가지속적으로활성화되면세포자멸사가억제되고 Vol. 43 (Suppl 1), 2011 (57-61) 57

2 Table 1. Common Categories of Serrated Colorectal Polyps Histological classification Abbreviation Features of polyp type Hyperplastic polyp Typically small polyps in the distal bowel with normal Architecture and proliferation Goblet cell-rich type GCHP Abundance of mature goblet cells in the upper crypt Microvesicular type MVHP Enlarged microvacuolated columnar cells in the upper crypt Sessile serrated adenoma SSA Distinction from hyperplastic polyps based mainly on abnormal architectural features including branching of crypts, dilatation of the base of the crypts, and growth of crypts parallel to the muscularis mucosa. Does not usually demonstrate cytological dysplasia Traditional serrated adenoma TSA Overall protuberant growth pattern with villiform projections and contain cytologically dysplastic cells with elongated nuclei and eosinophilic cytoplasm Mixed serrated polyp MP Individual components should be listed A B Figure 1. CpG island methylation leads to gene silencing. The aberrant addition of methyl group (CH3) to CpG sites in the promoter region interferes with gene transcription, resulting in silencing. 세포는지속적으로증식하게된다 (Fig. 2). BRAF 돌연변이는 SSA 의대부분에서관찰되지만일반적인대장선종이나 HNPCC 에서는일어나지않고, CIMP와의상관관계가높기때문에톱니경로를설명하고폴립의발생기전을감별하는데매우유용한인자이다. 3) 톱니경로의시작과진행 : BRAF나 KRAS가돌연변이로활성화되면즉시세포의과증식이일어나지만 p16ink4a나 p53과같은암억제유전자의역할에의해곧세포주기가중단되면서세포는노화되는데, 이러한암억제유전자가과메틸화등의기전에의해억제되면세포노화에서벗어나톱니경로가지속될수있다. 멜라닌세포에서 BRAF가돌연변이에의해활성화되면 p53유발세포노화의중요매개체인 insulin-like growth factor binding protein 7 (IGFBP7) 의합성이촉진된다. 하지만 BRAF 돌연변이양성대장암세포주에선 CIMP에의해 IGFBP7 과메틸화가발생하여기능을 Figure 2. KRAS and BRAF mediate transduction of signals from extracellular stimuli via the MAPK signaling pathway. Activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) can translocate to the nucleus, where it activates transcription factors to alter expression of genes that regulate cell growth and proliferatioin. Mutations in the oncogenes KRAS or BRAF result in constitutive activation of the pathway and uncontrolled cell proliferation. 잃게되며, 따라서세포는지속적으로과증식된다. 이러한현상은 aberrant crypt foci나 MVHP 단계에서부터관찰되므로결국 SSA 로진행하게된다. 이와같이 BRAF 돌연변이와 CIMP에의한암억 58 The Korean Journal of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

3 제유전자 p16ink4a나 IGFBP7 과메틸화의동시발생은톱니경로활성화의중요기전이된다. 암억제유전자 APC의돌연변이에의해시작되는 Wnt 신호경로는산발성선종발생의주요기전이다. APC가돌연변이에의해기능을상실하면 β-catenin 이핵내로이동하게되는데이와같은 β -catenin 의핵내이동은 Wnt 신호경로활성화의유용한지표로과형성폴립단계에서는관찰되지않고 SSA에서 41% 관찰되는것으로보아 SSA로의진행에관여할가능성이있다. 9 톱니경로에서 Wnt 신호경로활성화기전은산발성선종에서와차이가있는데주로 mutated in colorectal cancer (MCC) 유전자의과메틸화가관여한다. MCC promoter 과메틸화에의한 Wnt 신호경로활성화는 BRAF 돌연변이, CIMP, p16ink4a 과메틸화와상관관계가있으며과형성폴립과 SSA에서도흔히관찰된다. 10 SSA의악성화기전에관한연구는 SSA에서이형성증이나암이발생하여한병변에 SSA와악성화병소가공존하는증례를통해이루어졌다. 이러한병변에 hmlh1 면역염색을해보면 SSA 부위는 hmlh1 면역염색양성이나암종부위에선음성으로관찰되고, MSI 또한 SSA 부위에선관찰되지않고고도이형성증이나암종부위에서만관찰되는것으로보아 hmlh1 과메틸화가 SSA에서 MSI 양성대장암으로진행하는속도를조절하는중요단계임을알수있다. 이러한 hmlh1 과메틸화는좌측대장보다는우측대장에서발생하는톱니폴립에서호발한다. 11 4) Alternative Pathway: BRAF나 KRAS는모두 MAPK 경로에관여하기때문에둘중하나가돌연변이에의해활성화되면결국 MAPK 경로활성화라는같은결과를초래한다. Weisenberger 등 6 이사용한전형적인 CIMP 표지자를사용하면 CIMP 양성대장 종양은거의대부분 BRAF돌연변이가양성이고 hmlh1 과메틸화가관찰된다. 하지만좀더많은수의표지자를사용하여 CIMP를판정할경우 BRAF 돌연변이가없이 KRAS 돌연변이만관찰되는 CIMP 양성종양을관찰할수있는데, 이때는 BRAF 돌연변이 -CIMP 양성종양에서보다적은수의 CIMP 표지자가과메틸화되어 CIMP-low 종양이라고분류하였다. Shen 등 12 은이러한종양을 CIMP2 라고명명하기도했는데이러한종양들은 methylguanine methyltransferase (MGMT) 유전자 promoter 과메틸화가공통적으로관찰된다. MGMT 과메틸화양성-KRAS 돌연변이양성, CIMP-low 의특징을보이는 alternative pathway 종양들은분자생물학적, 형태학적특징이관상융모선종이나 TSA와일치하는점이많은데분자생물학적특징은 MAPK 경로활성화와과메틸화, 형태학적으로는표면이융모형이면서점액생성을많이하는특징이그예이다. 5) 대장암발생기전 : 기존에알려진대장암발생의분자생물학적기전은 Fig. 3에요약되어있다. 발생하는분자생물학적변화의조합뿐만아니라발생순서도매우중요하다. 산발성선종에선 BRAF 돌연변이가거의관찰되지않는데그이유는 Wnt 신호경로가활성화된상태에서그후 BRAF 돌연변이가발생하면그세포는생존할수없게되기때문이다. 하지만 BRAF 돌연변이가발생한폴립에선세포의정상적인구조물에많은변화가발생하기때문에나중에 Wnt 신호경로가활성화되어도세포의생존엔영향을미치지않는다. KRAS 돌연변이는 TSA나관상융모선종에서융모형변화를일으키는데관여하는데 Wnt 신호경로가활성화된산발성선종에서 KRAS 돌연변이는관상선종에서관상융모선종으로진행을촉진시킨다. 또한이를통해 MAPK 경로활성화에관여하 Figure 3. Model of colorectal tumorigenesis. Vol. 43 (Suppl 1), 2011 (57-61) 59

4 Table 2. Proposed Management Strategy for Patients with Hyperplastic Polyposis Colonoscopy every 1-2 years with the aim of removing all polyps > 5 mm in size. If this is not possible because of the sized or number of polyps or the patient does not wish to have such frequent colonoscopies or cancer is detected, colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis should be considered in patients without significant comorbidity. It there is significant comorbidity or the patient declines surgery and all polyps > 5 mm cannot be removed endoscopically, colonoscopy with biopsy and/or removal of the largest and most adenomatous-appearing lesions in reasonable, but patients must understand there is a significant risk of cancer that may not be detected at an early stage. First-degree relatives should be offered screening colonoscopy from 10 years younger that th index case. 는 BRAF와 KRAS 돌연변이가항상완전히일치하는결과를초래하지않는다는것도알수있다. 3. 톱니종양의위험인자 선천적으로유전자 promoter 의과메틸화가발생할수있는경우는과형성폴립증후군이그대표적인예이지만발생률이매우낮다. 13 과메틸화없이톱니폴립이발생할수있는경우는 MYH 폴립증이그예인데발생하는폴립의대부분은산발성선종이지만 KRAS 돌연변이양성톱니폴립발생도증가하게된다. 14 발생기전은 MYH 유전자의 biallelic germline 돌연변이로인해 APC와 KRAS 유전자에서 G:C to T:A transversion 이발생하여 MAPK 경로가활성화되기때문이다. 4. 임상적의미 1) 톱니경로암종의임상적특징 : CIMP-high, MSI 양성대장암은임상적으로고령의여성에서우측대장에호발하며, 예후가좋고, 병리소견에서분화도가불량하면서, 점액을생성하고, tumor infiltrating lymphocyte를관찰할수있는특징이있다. CIMP-high, MSS 대장암의특징은확실치않지만 BRAF V600E 돌연변이가많고, MSI 양성종양과마찬가지로고령에서우측대장에호발하고, 점액을생성하며, 진행된상태에서발견되고, 비교적예후가불량한것으로알려져있다. 6 MGMT 과메틸화양성-KRAS 돌연변이양성, CIMP-low 의특징을보이는 alternative pathway 암들의예후는잘알려져있지않지만 KRAS나 BRAF 돌연변이는상피세포성장인자수용체 (epidermal growth factor receptor) 특이항체인 cetuximab과 panitumumab 에대한치료반응의예측인자로사용된다. 2) 톱니폴립의발견및추적검사 : 톱니폴립은산발성선종보다출혈이적기때문에대변잠혈검사로발견하기어렵다. SSA 는융기가적고미세한색조변화만관찰되는경우가많기때문에 CT colonography로진단하기어려우며색소내시경으로발견율을 2배향상시킬수있다. SSA의간과는중간암발생의중요한원인중하나로생각되는데그이유는발견되는중간암중많은수가우측대장에서발생하는점액생성이많은암이고, MSI-high 가산발암보다 4배많으며, BRAF 돌연변이양성-CIMP- high, MSI 양성대장암환자에서동시성대장종양이호발하기때문에다. 하지만 SSA나 TSA를절제한후추적검사를언제시행해야하는지에대해선연구가많지않은데기존의가이드라인은산발성선종에준해서크기와숫자, 이형성증의정도를참고하여 3년혹은 10년간격으로추적대장내시경을시행하라고권고하고있다. 15 과형성폴립증후군의추적검사가이드라인은 Table 2에요약되어있다. 결론 신생폴립이나중간암발생의분자생물학적기전에서톱니경로가중요한역할을하는데, 이러한톱니경로의핵심은 CIMP, BRAF 돌연변이, KRAS 돌연변이, MSI 발생의조합뿐만아니라발생순서가결정함을알았다. 하지만 MGMT 과메틸화양성-KRAS 돌연변이양성, CIMP-low 의특징을보이는 alternative pathway 종양의발생기전이나특징은잘알려져있지않고, 또한 SSA나 TSA를절제한후추적검사를언제시행해야하는지에대해서도추가적인연구가필요하다. 참고문헌 1. Farrar WD, Sawhney MS, Nelson DB, Lederle FA, Bond JH. Colorectal cancers found after a complete colonoscopy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;4: Singh H, Nugent Z, Demers AA, Bernstein CN. Rate and predictors of early/missed colorectal cancers after colonoscopy in Manitoba: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol 2010; 105: Sawhney MS, Farrar WD, Gudiseva S, et al. Microsatellite instability in interval colon cancers. Gastroenterology 2006;131: Arain MA, Sawhney M, Sheikh S, et al. CIMP status of interval colon cancers: another piece to the puzzle. Am J Gastroenterol 2010;105: Snover DC, Jass JR, Fenoglio-Preiser C, Batts KP. Serrated polyps of the large intestine: a morphologic and molecular review of an evolving concept. Am J Clin Pathol 2005;124: Weisenberger DJ, Siegmund KD, Campan M, et al. CpG island methylator phenotype underlies sporadic microsatellite instability and is tightly associated with BRAF mutation in colorectal cancer. Nat Genet 2006;38: Samowitz WS, Albertsen H, Herrick J, et al. Evaluation of a large, population-based sample supports a CpG island methyl- 60 The Korean Journal of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

5 ator phenotype in colon cancer. Gastroenterology 2005;129: Minoo P, Baker K, Goswami R, et al. Extensive DNA methylation in normal colorectal mucosa in hyperplastic polyposis. Gut 2006;55: Wu JM, Montgomery EA, Iacobuzio-Donahue CA. Frequent beta-catenin nuclear labeling in sessile serrated polyps of the colorectum with neoplastic potential. Am J Clin Pathol 2008;129: Kohonen-Corish MR, Sigglekow ND, Susanto J, et al. Promoter methylation of the mutated in colorectal cancer gene is a frequent early event in colorectal cancer. Oncogene 2007;26: Sheridan TB, Fenton H, Lewin MR, et al. Sessile serrated adenomas with low- and high-grade dysplasia and early carcinomas: an immunohistochemical study of serrated lesions caught in the act. Am J Clin Pathol 2006;126: Shen L, Toyota M, Kondo Y, et al. Integrated genetic and epigenetic analysis identifies three different subclasses of colon cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104: Rashid A, Houlihan PS, Booker S, Petersen GM, Giardiello FM, Hamilton SR. Phenotypic and molecular characteristics of hyperplastic polyposis. Gastroenterology 2000;119: Chow E, Lipton L, Lynch E, et al. Hyperplastic polyposis syndrome: phenotypic presentations and the role of MBD4 and MYH. Gastroenterology 2006;131: East JE, Saunders BP, Jass JR. Sporadic and syndromic hyperplastic polyps and serrated adenomas of the colon: classification, molecular genetics, natural history, and clinical management. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2008;37:25-46, Vol. 43 (Suppl 1), 2011 (57-61) 61

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