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1 대한소화기학회지 2009;54:13-19 DOI: /kjg Clostridium difficile-associated Disease (CDAD) 의최근임상양상의변화 한양대학교의과대학내과학교실, 진단검사의학교실 * 변태준ㆍ한동수ㆍ안상봉ㆍ조현석ㆍ김태엽ㆍ은창수ㆍ전용철ㆍ손주현ㆍ강정옥 * Clinical Characteristics and Changing Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated Disease (CDAD) Tae Jun Byun, M.D., Dong Soo Han, M.D., Sang Bong Ahn, M.D., Hyun Seok Cho, M.D., Tae Yeob Kim, M.D., Chang Soo Eun, M.D., Yong Cheol Jeon, M.D., Joo Hyun Sohn, M.D., and Jung Oak Kang, M.D.* Departments of Internal Medicine and Laboratory Medicine*, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Guri, Korea Background/Aims: The spectrum of Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) ranges from mild diarrhea to life-threatening colitis. Recent studies reported an increase in incidence and severity of CDAD and the presence of severe community-acquired CDAD (CA-CDAD). The aims of this study were to investigate the incidence of CA-CDAD and non-antibiotics-associated CDAD, and to compare the clinical characteristics between hospital-acquired (HA) and CA-CDAD. Methods: The medical records of 86 patients who were diagnosed as CDAD in Hanyang University Guri Hospital between January 2005 and October 2007 were retrospectively reviewed. Results: Of the 86 patients (mean age 64 years), 53 patients were women. The most frequently prescribed antibiotics were cephalosporins (67.4%), followed by aminoglycosides (38.4%) and quinolones (14%). Of the 86 patients, the average duration of treatment and recovery time of symptoms were 11.5 days and 4.6 days, respectively. Seven percent of patients experienced relapse treatment. The overall incidence rate of CA-CDAD and non-antibiotics-associated CDAD were 10.5% and 22.1%, respectively. CA-CDAD group had lower rate of antimicrobial exposure whilst showing higher rate of complications compared to HA-CDAD group. Three patients in the CA-CDAD progressed towards a severe complicated clinical course, including septic shock. Conclusions: The incidence rate of CA-CDAD and non-antibiotics-associated CDAD were 10.5% and 22.1%, respectively. CA-CDAD tends to have a higher complication rate compared to HA-CDAD. Community clinicians needs to maintain a high level of suspicion for CDAD, whilst coping with the ever evolving epidemiologic change. (Korean J Gastroenterol 2009;54:13-19) Key Words: Clostridium difficile; Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD); Community-acquired C. difficile-associated disease (CA-CDAD) 접수 : 2008 년 8 월 6 일, 승인 : 2008 년 9 월 27 일연락처 : 한동수, , 경기도구리시교문동 한양대학교구리병원소화기내과 Tel: (031) , Fax: (031) hands@hanyang.ac.kr Correspondence to: Dong Soo Han, M.D. Department of Internal Medicine, Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 249-1, Gyomun-dong, Guri , Korea Tel: , Fax: hands@hanyang.ac.kr
2 14 대한소화기학회지 : 제 54 권제 1 호, 2009 서론 Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) 은그람양성, 포자형성혐기간균으로병원감염의흔한원인이며 C. difficile-associated disease (CDAD) 는경증설사부터치명적인장염까지다양한임상양상을보인다. 1,2 C. difficile 감염의가장중요한위험인자는항생제노출이며항생제유발설사의 15-20% 를차지한다. 3,4 그동안비교적양호한임상경과를보였던 CDAD는 2003 년이후 BI/NAP1/027형의전파로미국과캐나다를중심으로재발률과사망률이높은중증감염의빈도가증가하고있다 CDAD는최근에는지역사회나혹은항생제를사용하지않은군, 즉과거의낮은위험군에서발생빈도가증가하고있다. 12,13 이러한낮은위험군에서 CDAD 발생빈도가증가하는것은양성자펌프억제제 (proton pump inhibitor, PPI) 가연관이있다. 14 국내에서도항생제및 PPI 사용이증가하고있어외국과유사할것으로추정되지만아직까지체계화된 CDAD에대한자료는드문실정이다. 따라서, 저자들은 CDAD의최근경향에비추어국내 CDAD의임상특징을파악하고특히지역사회감염 CDAD (community-acquired CDAD, CA-CDAD) 의빈도및임상경과, 항생제비노출군의빈도, 그리고병원감염 CDAD (hospital-acquired CDAD, HA-CDAD) 와의특징을비교하고자하였다. 대상및방법 1. 대상 2005년 1월부터 2007년 10월까지한양대학교구리병원에서 CDAD로진단받은환자를대상으로하였다. CDAD의진단기준은설사가있는환자에서 1) C. difficile toxin A에대한 enzyme linked fluorescent immunoassay (ELFA) 가양성인경우, 2) 대변배양검사에서 C. difficile 양성인경우, 3) 구불결장경혹은대장내시경에서특징적인위막장염을보인경우, 4) 내시경생검에서특징적인 C. difficile 감염소견을보인경우중한개이상이해당될때로정의하였다. 모두 86명의환자가이번연구에포함되었고, 후향연구에대한한양대학교구리병원윤리위원회의승인을받았다. 2. 방법 1) 실험실진단 C. difficile 배양검사는설사변을대상으로하여선택적 인항생제를포함하고있는배지인 cycloserine cefoxitine fructose egg yolk agar (CCFA) 에접종하여 48-72시간혐기배양을시행하였다. 의심되는균주를분리하여아포염색 (spore stain) 및혐기세균동정카드 API Rapid 32A kit (bio- Merieux, Marcy-I Etoile, France) 를이용하여동정하였다. Toxin A 검출은효소면역형광법에의해상대형광지수를측정하는 ELFA를원리로하는 VIDAS C. difficile 독소 A II assay (biomerieux, France) 를이용하여검사하였다. 또한 E-test를이용하여 metronidazole에대한항생제내성검사를시행하였다. 2) 임상양상진단당시의환자연령과성별, 기저질환, 주증상, 설사정도, 항생제사용여부, 항생제종류, 항생제사용기간, PPI 사용여부, 과거입원력, 입원후발병기간, 중환자실입원력, 위비관사용유무를후향조사하였다. 또한 CDAD의중증도와연관이있는진단당시체온, 수축기혈압, 백혈구, 알부민, 크레아티닌등을조사하였다. 진단후치료약제와치료기간, 설사의회복기간, 치료실패여부와약제변경여부, 그리고합병증및재발, 사망여부등을추가로조사하였다. 3) 분류 CA-CDAD는 CDAD의진단기준을충족하면서 1) 심각한만성기저질환 ( 예를들면, 만성간질환혹은만성신질환 ) 이없고, 2) 설사발생전 3개월이내에병원에입원하거나요양원에체류한적이없는경우 13 로하였다 (Table 1). 그외의경우는모두 HA-CDAD로분류하였고두군을항생제노출군과비노출군으로다시구분하여빈도를조사하였다. 3. 통계분석결과는중앙값, 분율, 평균 ± 표준편차로표기하였다. CA-CDAD군과 HA-CDAD군의비교를위해명목변수에대해서는 chi-square test 혹은 Fisher s exact test를이용하였고연속변수에대해서는 Student t test 혹은 Mann-Whitney U test를이용하였다. p<0.05을유의한값으로간주하였고모든통계분석은 SPSS (version 12.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) 을이용하였다. 결과 1. 임상특징연구기간동안 86명의환자가 CDAD로진단되었고여성이 53명 (61.64%) 이었으며평균연령은 64세 (20-94) 였다. 동
3 변태준외 8 인. Clostridium difficile-associated Disease (CDAD) 의최근임상양상의변화 15 Table 1. Case Definition for Community-acquired CDAD Confirmed case of CA-CDAD Any adult with each of the following Diarrhea No serious, chronic underlying illness (e.g., severe chronic liver or kidney disease) No overnight stay in a health-care facility for 3 months before diarrhea onset Evidence of CDAD by any of the following Positive assay for C. difficile toxin Colonic histopathology characteristics of C. difficile infection Pseudomembranous colitis observed on lower gastrointestinal endoscopy Positive stool culture for C. difficile CDAD, Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Adapted from reference 13. 반질환은악성종양이 19예 (22.1%) 로가장많았으며그다음으로뇌혈관질환 (17.4%), 당뇨병 (8.1%), 간경변, 신부전순이었다. 이들환자들에서사용한항생제는다양하였고여러종류를복합하여사용한경우가많았다. 사용한항생제는 cephalosporin 계열 ( 주로, ceftriaxone) 이 58예 (67.4%), aminoglycoside 계열 ( 주로, amikacin) 이 33예 (38.4%) 였으며 quinolone 계열 ( 주로, ciprofloxacin) 은 12예 (14%) 였다. 그밖에항결핵제사용에의한경우가 1예있었다. 진단전항생제의평균사용기간은 16.1일이었고항생제를사용하지않은경우가 19 예 (22.1%) 였다. 임상증상으로는설사가 86예전부에서있었고설사와동반된복통, 발열, 구토등의증상이있었던환자는 67.4% 였다. CDAD 진단전평균재원기간은 22.8일이었고진단전 PPI를사용했던환자는 19명 (22.1%) 이었다. 최초치료로 metronidazole (95.8%) 을사용하였고설사의평균회복기간은 4.6일이었으며평균치료기간은 11.5일이었다. 치료후재발한경우는 6예 (7%) 있었고재발에대한치료는모두 metronidazole을사용하였다. 치료에실패한경우는 5예로 oral vancomycin 으로약제를변경하여치료하였다. 패혈증혹은독성거대결장등의중증합병증은 6예 (7%) 에서발생하였고 1예에서패혈증으로사망하였다 (Table 2). 2. CDAD 의분류 앞에서언급한정의에따라 CDAD군을분류해보았을때 CA-CDAD군은 9명 (10.5%) 이었고 HA-CDAD군은 77명 (89.5%) 이었다. 그중항생제에전혀노출이안되었던환자는각각 8명과 11명이었다 (Table 3). Table 2. Baseline Characteristics of Patients with CDAD Characteristics No. of patients (n=86) Age, median (range) 64 (20-94) Female sex 53 (61.6%) Comorbid conditions Cancer 19 (22.1%) Neurologic disorders 15 (17.4%) Diabetes mellitus 7 (8.1%) Liver cirrhosis 6 (7%) Chronic renal failure 6 (7%) Antimicrobial exposures Any cephalosporins 58 (67.4%) Any aminoglycosides 33 (38.4%) Any quinolones 12 (14%) Antibiotics non-exposure 19 (22.1%) Duration of antimicrobial exposures 16.1 days Grading of diarrhea, grade II (moderate) 47.7% Clinical symptoms 67.4% (e.g., abdominal pain, fever, vomiting) Length of stay before diagnosis 22.8 days Proton pump inhibitors use 19 (22.1%) Initial treatment regimen (metronidazole) 95.8% Average duration of treatment 11.5 days Average recovery time (diarrhea) 4.6 days Relapse 6 (7%) Severe complication (e.g., sepsis, 6 (7%) megacolon, etc) CDAD, Clostridium difficile-associated disease. 3. CA-CDAD 군과 HA-CDAD 군간의비교분석 CA-CDAD와 HA-CDAD군의평균연령은각각 59.7세와 64.6세로 CA-CDAD군에서평균연령은낮았지만유의한차이는없었다 (p=0.330). 성별과호소하는증상에서도유의한차이는없었다. 진단방법, 양성자펌프억제제의사용과중환자실입원력도두군간에차이가없었다. 항생제노출빈도는 CA-CDAD군이 1예 (11%) 와 HA-CDAD군이 66예 (85%) 로 HA-CDAD군에서유의하게높았으며 (p=0.000), 합병증이발생한경우는 CA-CDAD군이 3예 (33%) 와 HA-CDAD군이 3 예 (4%) 로 CA-CDAD군에서유의하게높았다 (p=0.001). CA-CDAD군의합병증은 3예모두패혈증이었고 HA-CDAD 군의합병증은독성거대결장 1예, 패혈증 2예였다. HA-CDAD군에서패혈증으로인한사망이 1예있었다. CDAD의중등도와연관이있는장마비, 발열, 수축기혈압, 백혈구수, 알부민등은두군간에유의한차이가없었으나크레아티닌은 CA-CDAD군이 0.8±0.2, HA-CDAD군이 1.3±1.8으로 HA-CDAD군에서의미있게높았다 (p=0.021). 치료에관해비교해보았을때두군간에치료실패및설사회복기간, 치료기간에는유의한차이가없었다 (Table 4).
4 16 The Korean Journal of Gastroenterology: Vol. 54, No. 1, 2009 Table 3. Incidence of CA-CDAD and Non-antibiotics-associated CDAD Antibiotics Exposure Antibiotics Non-exposure CA-CDAD HA-CDAD Total Total CA-CDAD 9/86 (10.5%), antimicrobial non-exposure 19/86 (22.1%). CA-CDAD, community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease; HA-CDAD, hospital-acquired Clostridium difficileassociated disease. 고 이번연구에서 CA-CDAD의유병률은 10.5% 였고항생제를사용하지않은경우는 22.1% 였다. CA-CDAD 는병원감염에비해항생제사용과크레아티닌이유의하게낮았고합병증의빈도는유의하게높았다. 이번연구는국내에서처음으로 CA-CDAD 유병률에관하여조사하였으며, 그중일부환자에서는중증합병증이발생하였음을확인하였다. 대부분 CDAD는양호한경과를보이며치료에잘반응하는데, 1990년대초반이후유병률이증가하고있으며임상적으로치명적인문제를유발할수있다. 최근 CDAD의중증도, 재발률및사망률이급격히증가하고있는데미국과캐나다에서는독성이강한새로운균주인 BI/NAP1/027의출현과연관이있다 이균주는병원내감염이나지역사회감염에서다양한빈도로관찰된다. 15 이균주와똑같은유전자형이이미 2001년이전에발견되었지만그당시에는중증질환을유발하거나급증하는양상을보이지않았다. 15 CDAD의병원성에관여하는대표적인독소는독소 A (Tcd A) 와독소 B (Tcd B) 로체액을분비하고장상피세포염증및세포사를유발한다. 이들은세개의보조유전자인 TcdR, TcdC, TcdE과함께 pathogenicity locus를형성하는데 TcdR은독소유전자발현의양성조절기능을하고, TcdC는독소생성의음성조절기능을한다. 16,17 최근발견된 BI/ NAP1/027균주는염기서열 117번째에있는 TcdC를인식하는유전자에 18-base pair 결손돌연변이가있으며이로인하여 TcdC의기능이소실되어독소생성을일으킨다. 이균주는일반적인균주에비하여독소 A와독소 B를각각 16배, 23배더생성하고이중독소 (binary toxin) CDT를인식하는유전자를함유하여이중독소를생성하며 fluoroquinolone에저항성을가진다. 15 이중독소는 C. perfringens iota toxin, C. spiroforme toxin, and C. botulinum C2 toxin을포함하는 찰 Table 4. Comparison of Clinical Characteristics between CA-CDAD and HA-CDAD CA-CDAD HA-CDAD p-value (n=9) (n=77) Demographic Age 59.7± ± Female sex 8 (89%) 45 (58%) Diagnosis Positive toxin assay 5 (55%) 29 (41%) Positive culture 2 (22%) 20 (28%) Positive endoscopy 5 (62%) 50 (87%) & biopsy Clinical Symptom 6 (67%) 49 (64%) (e.g., abdominal pain, fever, vomiting) Antibiotics exposure 1 (11%) 66 (85%) 0.000* PPI use 1 (11%) 18 (23%) ICU care 1 (11%) 18 (23%) Complication 3 (33%) 3 (4%) 0.001* Ileus 3 (33%) 31 (40%) Fever ( o C) 37.3± ± Systolic BP (mmhg) 118.3± ± Laboratory finding WBC (/mm 3 ) 12,533±8,889 12,737.8±7, Albumin (g/dl) 3.2± ± Creatinine (mg/dl) 0.8± ± * Treatment related Treatment period 10.5± ± (days) Recovery period 3.6± ± (days) Treatment failure 1 (11%) 4 (6%) CA-CDAD, community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease; HA-CDAD, hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease; PPI, proton pump inhibitor; ICU, intensive care unit; BP, blood pressure; WBC, white blood cell. *p-value<0.05 mean±sd. clostridial ADP-ribosyltransferases의아형에속하며독소 A와독소 B의변이와연관이있다. CDAD에서이중독소양성균주의빈도는 % 정도이나아직까지는 CDAD의병인에서이중독소의역할은명확하지않으며, 이중독소에대한국내보고는아직까지는없다. 22 최근상대적으로저위험군으로생각하던지역사회에서건강한성인과아이들, 그리고일부항생제비노출군에서 CDAD 빈도가증가하고있으며중증임상경과를보인다. 12,13 건강한성인의 C. difficile 보균율은문헌에따라 0-15% 로지역사회에서 C. difficile 독성균주가 10.7% 정도관찰된다. 23,24 CA-CDAD와항생제비노출 CDAD의유병률
5 Byun TJ, et al. Clinical Characteristics and Changing Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated Disease (CDAD) 17 에대한보고는많지않으며한연구에서는 CA-CDAD 4.6%, 항생제비노출 CDAD 26% 로보고하고 25 있고미국 CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) 에서는 2005 년필라델피아에서 10만명당 7.6명, 2006년코네티컷에서는 10만명당 6.9명으로 CA-CDAD 발생을보고하였다. 26 또한새로운균주 BI/NAP1/027의출현과연관하여이중독소양성균주에서 CA-CDAD가더빈번히발생하였고중증임상경과를보였다. 25 위산억제제, 특히양성자펌프억제제가 CA-CDAD의위험인자가될수있으며그외의위험인자로신부전, 염증성장질환, 악성종양, 그리고 MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) 양성등이알려져있다. 14 이번연구에서 CA-CDAD 유병률은 10.5%, 항생제비노출 CDAD는 22.1% 로외국연구와유사하였다. CA-CDAD 발생이증가하는원인은 CDAD가대부분 fecal-oral 경로로전염되고포자를형성하여오래생존하기때문에오염된병원환경접촉및 CDAD 보균자와의접촉, 오염된음식을섭취하기때문이다. 감염원으로애완동물인개, 고양이와농장동물인말, 소, 돼지, 그외새, 설치류등이있다 이번연구에서 CDAD 환자의기저질환으로악성종양과뇌혈관질환이가장많았으며사용한항생제는 cephalosporin계열과 aminoglycoside 계열이이전국내연구와유사하게가장많았다. 30 최근관심이되고있는 quinolone계항생제의사용은 12예 (14%) 였고 CDAD 진단전양성자펌프억제제를사용한환자는 19예 (22.1%) 였다. 최초치료로 96% 에서 metronidazole을사용하였고재발률은 7% 로외국의보고에비해서는낮으나과거국내연구와는유사하여아직까지국내에서는 metronidazole이 CDAD의효과적인치료약제로생각된다. 31 이번연구에서 CA-CDAD군은 9명, 항생제비노출군은 19 명으로전체 CDAD 환자의 10.5%, 22.1% 로이전의외국보고와유사하였다. CA-CDAD군과 HA- CDAD군간에나이, 진단방법, 성별, 증상, 양성자펌프억제제사용, 중환자실입원력, 위비관의사용, 장폐쇄증상, 체온, 수축기혈압, 백혈구수, 알부민, 치료기간, 회복기간등은차이가없었으나항생제노출력과크레아티닌은 HA-CDAD군에서유의하게높았으며합병증은 CA-CDAD군에서유의하게높았다. 크레아티닌에차이가있었던이유는 HA-CDAD군에서만성신부전환자의비율이더높았기때문으로생각한다. CA-CDAD 군에서중증합병증의발생비율이유의하게높았는데대상자수가적어큰의미를두기는어렵지만 CA-CDAD군에서중증합병증이발생할수있다는것을확인하였다는데에의의가있겠다. 이번연구의제한점으로는, 첫째, C. difficile cytotoxin A만을조사했다는점이다. Toxin A B+ 균주가국내에서최근 증가하고있어연구기간동안 toxin A B+ CDAD를간과했을가능성이있다. 32 둘째, 이번연구는후향연구로의무기록에의존하였기때문에정확한정보의한계가있다. 항생제를손쉽게접할수있고외국에비해항생제처방빈도가높은국내여건에비추어볼때정확한항생제투약내역을확인하기가어려웠을가능성이있다. 셋째, 이번연구는단일기관연구로지역적인한계가있고인구집단을대상으로한연구가아니었기때문에 CDAD의정확한발생률의도출은힘들다는점등이다. 그러나, 이러한제한점에도불구하고이번연구는국내에서 CA-CDAD의발생률을처음으로조사하였다는점에서의미가있다. 이번연구를통해국내에서도 CA-CDAD와항생제비노출군에서의 CDAD가적지않은빈도에서발생하며, CA-CDAD 의빈도가 HA-CDAD에비해낮지만중증임상경과를나타낼수있음을확인하였다. 특히국내에서최근 moxifloxacin, gatifloxacin 등의 quinolone계항생제및양성자펌프억제제의사용이증가하고있어외국에서보고된새로운균주의출현및 CA-CDAD의발생률의증가가예상된다. 결론으로임상의들은 CDAD의최근변화에대한정확한이해가필요하다. 아직까지는 CDAD가대부분병원에서발생하고항생제사용과연관이있기때문에병원및개인의위생관리가 CDAD 예방에가장중요하다. 손씻기, 일회용장갑의사용, 감염된환자의적절한격리등이대표적인예방방법들이며, 적절한항생제지침에따라항생제의무분별한사용을피하고, 무분별한양성자펌프억제제의사용도피하는것이중요하다. 그리고 CA-CDAD가적지않은빈도로발생할수있다는것을인식하고항생제및 PPI 제제의무분별한사용을자제하고대증적인치료에도불구하고지속적인설사가있는환자에서는 CDAD 발생가능성을염두에두어야한다. 아직국내에서는새로운변이균주의발생에대한보고가없는데, 국가적인차원에서변이균주에대한조사가필요하며인구집단을대상으로한 CA-CDAD의유병률과위험인자들에대한연구가필요할것이다. 요약목적 : Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) 은병원감염설사의중요한원인으로최근새로운균주의출현과함께 CDAD의유병률과심각성이증가하는추세이다. 또한지역사회감염 CDAD (CA-CDAD) 는병원감염 (HA-CDAD) 보다빈도는낮지만임상적인중요성이강조되고있다. 아직까지국내에서 CA-CDAD에대한보고는없으며저자들은 CA-CDAD에대한빈도및임상특징을알아보고자하였다. 대상및방법 :
6 18 대한소화기학회지 : 제 54 권제 1 호, 년 1월부터 2007년 10월까지한양대학교구리병원에서 CDAD로진단받은 86명을대상으로후향연구하였다. 대상군의임상특징과 CA-CDAD의빈도및임상양상을조사하였고 HA-CDAD와비교분석하였다. 결과 : 대상환자중여자가 61% 였으며평균나이는 64세였다. 사용한항생제는 cephalosporin계열이 67% 로가장많았으며그다음으로 aminoglycosides (38%) 이었고 quinolone계열은 14% 였다. 기저질환은악성종양 (22%), 뇌혈관질환 (17%) 순이었다. 진단전 PPI를사용한환자는 22% 였다. 초기치료로 95.7% 에서 metronidazole을사용하였고평균투약기간은 11.6일이었으며약제투여후설사의평균회복기간은 4.6일이었다. 치료성공후재발한경우는 6예 (7%) 였다. 발병전항생제를사용하지않은군이 22% 였으며 CA-CDAD군은 9예 (10.5%) 였다. CA-CDAD군은 HA- CDAD군에비해항생제의노출빈도는낮았으며합병증은더높은빈도로발생하였다 (p< 0.05). CA-CDAD군중 3예는패혈쇼크등중증임상경과를보였다. 결론 : 국내에도항생제를사용한적이없거나지역사회에서감염된 CDAD 환자가있으며일부는중증임상양상을보였다. CDAD의최근변화에대한이해가필요하며 CDAD의예방을위한노력과대규모연구가필요할것이다. 색인단어 : C. difficile, CDAD, 지역사회감염 CDAD 참고문헌 1. Larson HE, Price AB, Honour P, et al. Clostridium difficile and the aetiology of pseudomembranous colitis. Lancet 1978; 1: Bartlett JG, Chang TW, Gurwith M, et al. Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis due to toxin-producing clostridia. N Engl J Med 1978;298: Fekety R, Shah A. Diagnosis and treatment of C. difficile colitis. JAMA 1993;269: Kelly CP, Pothoulakis C, LaMont JT. Clostridium difficile colitis. N Engl J Med 1994;330: Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA, et al. A predominantly clonal multiinstitutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med 2005;353: Pepin J, Valiquette L, Cossette B. Mortality attributable to nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated disease during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain in Quebec. Can Med Assoc J 2005;173: Pepin J, Valiquette L, Alary ME, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity. Can Med Assoc J 2004;171: Hubert B, Loo VG, Bourgault AM, et al. Portrait of the geographic dissemination of the Clostridium difficile North American pulsed-field type 1 strain and the epidemiology of C. difficile-associated disease in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44: McDonald LC, Killgore GE, Thompson A, et al. An epidemic, toxin genevariant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2005;353: Muto CA, Pokrywka M, Shutt K, et al. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26: Kazakova SV, Ware K, Baughman B, et al. A hospital outbreak of diarrhea due to an emerging epidemic strain of Clostridium difficile. Arch Intern Med 2006;166: Morinville V, McDonald J. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in 200 Canadian children. Can J Gastroenterol 2005; 19: MMWR. Severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease in populations previously at low risk - four states, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005;54: Dial S, Delaney JAC, Barkun AN, Suissa S. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA 2005;294: Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, et al. Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 2005;366: Voth DE, Ballard JD. Clostridium difficile toxins: mechanism of action and role in disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005;18: Spigaglia P, Mastrantonio P. Molecular analysis of the pathogenicity locus and polymorphism in the putative negative regulator of toxin production (TcdC) among Clostridium difficile clinical isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40: Stubbs S, Rupnik M, Gibert M, Brazier J, Duerden B, Popoff M. Production of actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase (binary toxin) by strains of Clostridium difficile. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2000;186: Geric B, Johnson S, Gerding DN, Grabnar M, Rupnik M. Frequency of binary toxin genes among Clostridium difficile strains that do not produce large clostridial toxins. J Clin
7 변태준외 8 인. Clostridium difficile-associated Disease (CDAD) 의최근임상양상의변화 19 Microbiol 2003;41: Goncalves C, Decre D, Barbut F, Burghoffer B, Petit JC. Prevalence and characterization of a binary toxin (actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase) from Clostridium difficile. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42: Rupnik M GM, Geric B. Binary toxin producing Clostridium difficile strains. Anaerobes 2003;9: Kim JH, Kim HJ, Ku NS, et al. Prognosis factors of Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea. Infect Chemother 2007;39: Brazier JS. The diagnosis of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998;41: Riley TV, Cooper M, Bell B, Golledge CL. Community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:S Barbut F, Decre D, Lalande V, et al. Clinical features of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea due to binary toxin (actin-specific ADP-ibosyltransferase)-producing strains. J Med Microbiol 2005;54: CDC. Surveillance for community-associated Clostridium difficile--connecticut, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2008;57: Songer JG, Anderson MA. Clostridium difficile: an important pathogen of food animals. Anaerobe 2006;12: Baverud V. Clostridium difficile infections in animals with special reference to the horse. A review. Vet Q 2002;24: Hammitt MC, Bueschel DM, Keel MK, et al. A possible role for Clostridium difficile in the etiology of calf enteritis. Vet Microbiol 2007;127: Lee CR, Lee JK, Cho YS, Yoo HM, Kim WH, Lee KW. A clinical investigation of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Korean J Gastroenterol 1999;33: Cheong HS, Kim JK, Lim TK, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of metronidazole for patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Korean J Med 2007;72: Shin BM, Kuak EY, Yoo HM, et al. Multicentre study of the prevalence of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in Korea: results of a retrospective study J Med Microbiol 2008; 57:
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