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1 우완측 김동규 안규백 Journal of Welding and Joining(Vol. 33, No. 1)

2 30 특집논문 ISSN Online ISSN 우완측 *, 김동규 * 안규백 ** * 한국원자력연구원중성자과학연구부 ** 포스코기술연구원접합연구그룹 Residual stress measurements using neutron diffraction Wanchuck Woo*,, Dong-Kyu Kim* and Gyu-Baek An** *Neutron Science Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon , Korea **Technical Research Laboratories, POSCO, Pohang , Korea Corresponding author : chuckwoo@kaeri.re.kr (Received January 28, 2015 ; Accepted February 24, 2015) Abstract Residual stresses are inherently introduced into the engineering components during manufacturing including rolling, forging, bending and welding processes. Excessive residual stresses are known to be detrimental to the proper integrity and performance of components. Neutron diffraction has become a well-established technique for the determination of residual stresses in welds. The deep penetration capability of neutrons into most metallic materials makes neutron diffraction a powerful tool for the residual stress measurements through the thickness of the weld specimen. Furthermore, the unique volume-averaged bulk characteristic of the scattering beam and mapping capability in three dimensions is suitable for the engineering purpose. In this presentation, the neutron diffraction measurements of the residual stresses will be introduced and measurement results will highlighted in thick weld plates. Key Words : Residual stress, Neutron diffraction, Welds 1. 서론 잔류응력은외부에서힘이가해지지않은상태에서재료자체적으로보유한응력의불균일한분포로정의된다 1,2). 이러한잔류응력은다양한산업공정에서필요한각종열, 탄소성가공중에필연적으로재료에발생하여부품의내구성과안전성에큰영향을미친다 3,4). 특히용접부의경우균열발생과갑작스런파단이잔류응력과외부응력이함께결합되어발생시키는것으로알려져있다 5,6). 최근다양한잔류응력측정법이국내외에서개발되고이를이용한활발한연구가이루어지고있다 7,8). 예를들면, 파괴법에기초한표면굴곡측정법 (contour method) 과딥홀드릴링법 (deep hole drilling), 비파괴법에기초한방사광 x-ray (synchrotron x-ray diffraction) 및중성자회절법 (neutron diffraction) 법 등이주목받고있다. 그가운데중성자회절을이용한잔류응력측정법을소개하고원자력연구원하나로의잔류응력측정장치 (RSI, residual stress instrument) 를이용한용접부의잔류응력측정예를제시하고자한다 (Fig. 1 참조 ) 9,10). 2. 중성자회절법 2.1 잔류응력측정원리 일반적인중성자회절법을이용한잔류응력측정의기본원리는다음과같다. 원자로내부에서우라늄과같은중성자발생물질이핵분열을일으키며발생되는다양한파장의중성자원을단결정인단색기 (monochromator) 를이용하여일정한파장 (λ) 을가진중성자 (neutron) 만선택하여빔가이드로이동시킨다. 이러한단파장 This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License( which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Journal of Welding and Joining, Vol.33 No.1(2015) pp

3 Normalized intensity (counts) 기준위치 (θ 0, stress free) 측정위치 (θ, stressed) Diffraction angle (2θ) Fig. 1 Residual Stress Instrument, RSI at research reactor HANARO in Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute) beam stop sample table nominal scattering volume 2θ sample Q Schematic layout incident beam λ beam from monochromator Fig. 3 An example of diffraction peak, residual stresses were calculated based on diffraction peaks between stressed and stress-free states 다 ( 식 1 사용, Fig. 3 참조 ). 즉, 회절 peak 위치변화로변형을계산한다 (θ: diffraction angle with stress, θ o : without stress), 2) 잔류응력 (residual stress, σ) 은 Hooke's law를이용하여계산하여 3축주응력 (principal stress) 을결정한다 ( 식 2 사용 ) 9). ε ( d ) = cot( θ )( θ θ ) = d o / d o o (1) diffracted beam detector beam defining optics (d: 측정된면간거리, d o : 응력없는상태의면간거리, θ: 측정된회절 peak 중심각도, θ o : 응력없는상태의 peak 중심각도 ) Fig. 2 Schematic of the neutron residual stress instrument 빔은그크기를결정하는 mm 폭의빔슬릿 (incident slit) 을통과하게된다 (Fig. 2 참조 ). 이때재료의내부에침투된중성자는원자핵으로부터산란되며이때중성자는임의의회절각 (2θ) 에따라일정한격자면 (hkl) 입자 (grains) 로부터 Bragg s law (λ=2dsin θ) 에따라회절하여입자의면간거리 (interplanar distance, d-spacing, d) 에따라 peak 의위치가결정된다 (Fig. 3 참조 ). 2.2 잔류응력계산방법회절 peak 의위치변화에따른응력계산법은 1) 중성자가회절된 (hkl) 격자면의면간거리 (d) 를고유한변형게이지 (strain gauge) 값으로가정하여이로부터기준면간거리 (do, 잔류응력이없는 stressfree 상태 ) 값으로부터변형값 (strain, ε) 을계산한 σ ( ε + ε + ε ) E hkl ν hkl ε ii + xx yy 1 + ν hkl 1 2ν hkl (2) i = zz (σ: 잔류응력, E hkl : (hkl) 면의회절탄성계수, ν hkl : (hkl) 면의 Poisson 비, ε: strain 변형, i = x, y, or z, 시험편의 3축직각응력방향 ) 3. 용접부잔류응력측정예 11) 3.1 실험방법 사용된시험편은 230 mm ( 길이 ), 300 mm ( 폭 ), 70 mm ( 두께 ) 크기의탄소량 0.05% 의 TMCP 대입열용강재 ( 선급용 EH40-TMCP) 이다 (Fig. 4 참조 ). 일반적으로 570 MPa 이상의항복강도, 610 MPa 이상의인장강도, 21 % 이상의연신율을보이는것으로알려져있다. 본연구에서는플럭스코어드아크용접법 (Flux cored arc welding, FCAW) 을이용하여 대한용접 접합학회지제 33 권제 1 호, 2015 년 2 월 31

4 우 완 측 김 동 규 안 규 백 32 (b) (a) m Unit:m mm 300 Incident slit 0 100mm , 60, 100mm (c) 280 Neutron beam Detector slit Sample table Centerline 70 Fig mm thick weld specimen, (a) dimension and measurement location, (b) standard sample, (c) dimension of the standard sample (a) 50mm (b) 40mm Fig. 6 Neutron diffraction measurement in a weld Fig. 5 Macroscopic structure of thick welds, (a) low heat-input multipass FCAW weld, (b) high heat-input one pass EGW weld)11) 2kJ/mm이하 저입열로 용접된 다층 용접의 경우와 일 렉트로 가스 용접법 (Electro-gas welding, EGW)으 로 50 kj/mm 이상의 입열량으로 단층 대입열 용접부 2 종류의 시험편을 이용하였다. (Fig. 5 참조). 상세한 용접조건 및 시험편의 준비는 참고문헌 11에 서술되어 있다. 두 가지 시험편을 각각 중성자 시험 설비 (RSI) 를 이용하여 용접 시험편으로 부터 잔류응력을 측정하 였다. 용접 시험편을 원자로 빔 룸의 장치 시험편 테이 블에 Fig. 6와 같이 설치하였다. 구체적 실험 조건은 2.39 Å의 파장, 72.4도 회절각 (2Θ)으로 체심입방격자 (Body Centered Crystal, BCC) 페라이트(ferrite)의 (110) peak을 주로 측정 하였으며 측정 부피는 4 (재료 깊이 방향) 8 (폭 방향) 4 (길이방향, rolling 방향과 평행) mm로 한 위치 별 일반적으로 1 시간 소요하여 측정하였다. 측정 위치 는 시험편 표면으로부터 5, 10, 15, , 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65 mm 지점에서 측정하였다. 식 (2)에서와 같이 응력계산을 위해서는 3축 주응력 방향 으로 각각 변형을 측정하여야 하므로 측정 3축 변형방 향 (εx, εy, εz)이 주응력 방향 (Principal stress direction)이라는 3축 직각 응력 방향으로 가정하고 측정 하여 잔류응력을 계산하였다. 또한 응력이 내재되어 있 는 시험편 측정 후 시험편을 EDM 절단 가공하여 stress-free (기준 시험편)으로 부터 기준 회절 peak 32 (θo)을 각각의 지점에서 측정하여 계산식 식(1)에 적용 하였다. 이는 용접부의 경우 매우 극심한 화학성분의 이동에 의한 d-spacing의 변화에 의한 오차를 최소화 하기 위한 방법이며 측정된 d-spacing은 오직 마크로 응력에 의한 결과임을 재확인하고자 하는 중요한 방안 이다 (Fig. 4b-c 참조). 3.2 고투과 파장의 선택 비파괴 잔류응력 측정하기 위하여 x-ray를 이용 하 는 것이 일반적인 방법인데 이 방법의 단점은 재료에 대한 투과력이 낮아서 재료 표면에서만 측정가능하고 가속기 방사광을 사용하기도 하는데 이 또한 일반적으 로 최대 10 ~ 20 mm 정도 투과력을 보이며 입사각 이 매우 낮아 완전한 응력 3축 응력 측정이 어렵다. 미 국이나 유럽에서는 최근에 30 mm 이상의 투과력을 가 진 중성자 측정 장치를 개발하여 활발히 이용되고 있으 며 투과력을 높이는 기술을 경쟁적으로 개발하고 있다. 본 연구에서는 두께 70mm의 극후판의 잔류응력 측정 을 목적으로 하며 이에 따른 중성자의 투과력 한계를 뛰어 넘기 위해 (i) 구부린 단결정 단색기를 이용하여 중성자 빔을 집속하여 그 세기와 빔 퍼짐성을 극소화 하는 고분해능 빔제조 기술, (ii) 회절시 중성자 빔의 충돌 가능성을 보여주는 중성자 감쇄능 (cross section) 이 최소화된 파장을 선택하는 핵심기술 2가지가 개발 되었다 (Fig. 7 참조)10). 이러한 핵심기술은 중성자 빔이 재료의 깊이 방향으 로 집중적으로 투과하여 회절파가 측정되기 위한 가장 중요한 요소로서 본 연구에서는 구부린 단결정 단색기 Journal of Welding and Joining, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2015

5 33 Total cross section(barns) Ferritic steel Wavelength (λa) Intensity (counts/hour) Ferritic steel Strain error = I=83mm Diffraction angle(20, degree) Fig. 7 Neutron cross-section dependance on wavelength in ferritic steel and an example of diffraction peak 10) z z (a) (b) y y σ x mm 30mm Maximum Maximum (MPa) 50mm Fig. 8 Distribution of longitudinal residual stresses in 70 mm thick weld specimens: (a) low heat-input multipass FCAW weld, (b) high heat-input one pass EGW weld 11) (bent perfect crystal monochromator) Si (111) 사용하여감쇄능이최소인 take-off angle 45 및 2.39 A 의파장조건을사용하여 70 mm 두께용접시험편의투과및잔류응력측정에성공하였다 (Table 1 참조 ). 3.3 잔류응력분포 Fig. 9은용접선방향의잔류응력 (σ x ) 에대한 70mm 두께강재중 (a) 다층용접부 (FCAW) 및 (b) 단층 용접부 (EGW) 의 2차원단면의잔류응력분포를보여준다. 먼저 FCAW 용접부의경우 (Fig. 8a) 용접선직각방향으로잔류응력은모재표면에서강한압축잔류응력이발달되며용접부중앙부에서큰인장응력이발달되는경향을보인다. 반면에 EGW 용접부의경우 (Fig. 8b) 열영향부 ( 중앙부에서약 30 mm 떨어진지점 ) 에서가장큰인장응력을보이고용접부중앙부에서는다소감소 (softening) 되는경향을보인다. 두가지시험편의경우서로아주상이한잔류응력분포를보이고있으며이는입열량및용접적층순서, 용접자세등에기인한것으로판단된다. 예를들어 EGW 에서최고인장응력위치가약 30 mm 이동한이유는대입열에의한용접중앙부의항복강도의큰감소와주변지역으로열전달이커져냉각시최대인장응력부분이멀리떨어지는것으로판단된다. 두께별로살펴보면 EGW 용접부는시험편표면에서가까운위치 (5 mm, 65 mm) 는압축응력이걸려있고내부 (35~45 mm) 지점에서인장응력이균형을유지하여분포한다. 전반적으로두께별로균일한분포를보이고있는점에반하여 FCAW 는용접부상부에매우인장응력 (~530 MPa) 이발달하여상부약 5~10 mm 까지매우균열및파괴에취약한위치라고판단된다. 4. 요약및결론 1) 중성자회절법을이용한잔류응력의측정법이개발되어이신기술을이용한과학적분석연구가전세계적으로활발히이용되고있다. 측정방법과순서는표준화 (ISO/TS 21432, 2005) 되어있으며그방법을따라두께 70mm의극후판의 2 종류입열로용접부의두께방향잔류응력측정을수행하였다. 2) 최근국내개발된중성자잔류응력측정장치는기존의장치에비해투과력이매우향상되었다. 영국 ISIS 연구소의보고에따르면철판의경우일반적으로 Table 1 Summary of monochromator, take-off angle, reflection plane, diffraction angle, Figure of Merit (FoM), total beam path length, penetration path length in reflection mode and transmission mode Monochromator 2θ м ( ) λ (Å) Reflection plane 2θ S ( ) FoM l m (mm) D ref (mm) D tr (mm) Si(220) (211) Si(220) (211) Si(220) (211) Si(220) (211) Si(111) (110) Si(111) (110) Si(111) (110) 대한용접 접합학회지제 33 권제 1 호, 2015 년 2 월 33

6 34 우완측 김동규 안규백 투과깊이가약 40 mm 이었으나최근에는 80 mm 깊이까지가능하다. 3) 70 mm 두께의저입열다층 FCAW 용접부및대입열단층 EGW 용접부를동일크기로제작하여중성자잔류응력을측정한결과두께방향분포가매우상이하며용접방향으로최대인장응력의경우 FCAW 의경우용접부중앙부표면쪽에서최대 530 MPa 까지발달되는반면 EGW 의경우중앙부로부터약 30 mm 정도떨어진열영향부두께중앙에서최대약 490 MPa 이측정되었다. 후 기 본연구는한국과학재단의원자력연구기술개발사업으로수행되었습니다. 또한포스코기술연구소의사업 (No ) 의연구비지원으로수행되었습니다. References 1. K. Masubuchi: Analysis of Welded Structures, New York, Pergamon, (1980) 2. P.J. Withers, H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia: Overview residual stress Part 2 - Nature and origin, Mater Sci Tech, 17 (2001), G.A. Webster, A.N. Ezeilo: Residual stress distributions and their influence on fatugue lifetimes, Inter J Fatigue, 23 (2001), S357-S Y. Kim, J. H. Lee: Residual Stress Prediction in Multi-layer Butt Weld Using Crack Compliance Method, Journal of KWJS, 30 (2012), G.B. An, W. Woo, J.U. Park: Brittle crack-arrest fracture toughness in a high heat-input thick steel weld, Inter J Fract, 185 (2014), J. Park, G. B. An, H. Kim, B. Jo: Bead Shape and Conditions of Friction Stir Processing to Improve Fatigue Strength, Journal of KWJS, 31 (2013), (in Korean) 7. P.J. Withers, M. Turski, L. Edwards, P.J. Bouchard, D.J. Buttle: Recent advances in residual stress measurement, Inter J Pres Ves Pip, 85 (2008), G.S. Schajer: Practical Residual Stress Measurement Methods, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, M. T. Hutchings, P. J. Withers, T. M. Holden and T. Lorentzen: Introduction to the Characterization of Residual Stress by Neutron Diffraction, 1st edn; London, Taylor and Francis, (2005) 10. W. Woo, V. Em, B.S. Seong, E. Shin, P. Mikula, J. Joo, K. Kang: Effect of wavelentgh-dependent attenuation on neutron diffraction stress measurerments at depth in steel, J Appl Cryst, 44 (2011), W. Woo, G.B. An, E.J. Kingston, A.T. DeWald, D.J. Smith, M.R. Hill: Through-thickness distributions of residual stresses in two extreme heat-input thick welds, A neutron diffraction, contour method and deep hole drilling study, Acta Mater, 61 (2013), 우완측 1970년생 한국원자력연구원 잔류응력, 금속변형, 중성자회절 chuckwoo@kaeri.re.kr 김동규 1984년생 한국원자력연구원선임연구원 중성자잔류응력측정및모델링 kimdk@kaeri.re.kr 안규백 1970년생 POSCO 기술연구소 용접파괴및구조 gyubaekan@posco.com 34 Journal of Welding and Joining, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2015

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