일정 11 월 28 일일정 ( 동국대학교경주캠퍼스백주년기념관지하 1 층대강당 ) 제1부티벳대장경역경원현판식제2부학술대회 ( 오후 1:00부터 ) - 개회 : 사회안성두 ( 서울대철학과교수 ) - 환영인사 : 동국대티벳대장경역경원장진옥스님 - 축사 : 동국대경주캠퍼스이계영총장 - 영상상영 : 대장경역경에관한달라이라마존자님의메시지 < 기조연설 > Geshe Ngawang Samten( 티벳학중앙대학교총장 ) 정우스님 ( 불교경전번역연구원원장 ) < 주제 1> 신국역대장경의제문제사회 : 최종남 ( 중앙승가대역경학과교수 ) 발표 : 小川一乗 ( 前大谷大学학장, 西照寺주지 ) 통역 : 배경아 ( 티벳대장경역경원객원연구원 ) < 주제 2> 해외에서의티벳대장경역경사례사회 : 차상엽 ( 금강대 HK교수 ) 발표 1 : Penpa Dorjee( 티벳학중앙대학교교수 ) 통역 : 이건준 ( 인도델리대학교불교학과객원교수 ) 발표 2 : Julia C. Stenzel(84000 프로젝트역경사, 샤까빤띠트번역팀매니저 ) 통역 : 한대성 7:00 저녁만찬및문화공연 - 카락뺀빠체링 ( 평화를노래하는티벳가수 ) - 아리솔 ( 국악그룹 ) 공연
11 월 29 일일정 ( 동국대학교경주캠퍼스백주년기념관 501 호 ) ( 오전 10:00 부터 ) 사회 : 김현구 ( 티벳대장경역경원전임연구원 ) < 주제 3> 스리랑카에서의삼장보존과현대화과정발표 : ven. 담마끼띠 < 주제 4> 한국에서의고려대장경번역발표 : 박종린 ( 동국역경원역경위원 ) 회향
목차 < 기조강연 > 역경과티벳불교의전통 1 Geshe Ngawang Samten 불전한글번역의문제와용어사용에관한고찰 29 정우스님 < 주제발표 > 신국역대장경의제문제 63 小川一乗티벳학중앙대학 (CUTS) 에의한불전의복원과역경 83 Penpa Dorjee 국제불교아카데미 ( 네팔 ) 싸꺄빤디따번역그룹의프레젠테이션과대승허공장보살경역경 115 Julia C. Stenzel 스리랑카에서의삼장보존과현대화과정 163 ven. 담마끼띠 한글대장경 의편찬과간행고찰 177 박종린
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism Prof. Geshe Ngawang Samten 한국어역 : 김현구
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 3 Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism Prof. Geshe Ngawang Samten The Buddha Shakya Muni redefined the meaning of spirituality and thereby brought about a paradigm shift in religion and philosophy in India and eventually at the global level. His teachings are distinguished by the rejection of extremes both in terms of the philosophical views and conduct, thus maintaining the Middle path in the pursuit of spiritual realization through the elimination of mental defilements. The Buddha gave the Dharma teaching on the four noble truths at Sarnath after his awakening at Bodhgaya. This discourse, according to followers of the Mahāyāna, is the first turning of the wheel of Dharma, among the three turning of the wheel of the Dharma, in which he lays down the structural foundation of the Buddhist spiritual system and philosophical views.in this teaching, he demonstrates two sets of causes and effects pertaining to engagement in saṃsāra and the achievement of nirvana. The Buddha gave massive teachings during his lifetime to a variety of disciples with different deposition, inclination, propensity and capability. This is the reason why the Buddha gave teachings on the three vehicles, the yanas, viz, Shravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana, the three major traditions in Buddhism. Buddhism spread widely in India during Buddha s lifetime and thereafter it spread to every nook and corner of the country. Great many monastic universities came into existence like Viramshila, Takshila, Odantapuri, Ratnagiri and others among which Nalanda was the most prominent. These Monastic universities with galaxies of masters immensely contributed to the development of intellectual systems like philosophy, epistemology, logic, and many other disciplines. Thus these monastic institutions were not only the great learning centers of intellectual pursuits but also great places of spiritual achievements, which demonstrated a unique combination of spirituality and academic exercise. In the seventh century of the Common Era there occurred in Tibet a momentous
4 세계각국의대장경역경 change in its history when it decided to embrace Buddhism as the state religion, which eventually reshaped its entire domain of spiritual practice and thought, knowledge system, and such other various domains as medicine, astronomy and art, and it went deep into the life of the common people as well. When Tibet approached India to receive Buddhism it encountered the overwhelmingly rich and profound knowledge system and high spiritual practice at the great monastic universities like Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramshila, Takshila, which were the great centers of spiritual attainment and practices of the highest order pursued alongside of the study of Abhidharma, Sutra and Vinaya. Those learning centers, with Nalanda as the crown and the leading one, also held studies on various fields of wisdom that helped develop and flower many disciplines. A wide range of disciplines like philosophy, logic, epistemology, psychology, medicine, astronomy, metallurgy, arts, poetry, grammar, languages etc. had their fields of study advanced further both horizontally and vertically. These citadels of knowledge played a prominent role in the development of Indian knowledge system in general through interaction with non-buddhist traditions. Thus, Buddhism in India was at the peak of its development when Tibet embraced it. That was a great opportunity for Tibet. Consequently, Tibet became direct heir to the entire range of Buddhist traditions and studies of other areas of enquiry prevalent in those great monastic universities at Nalanda in particular. When we look back, we see that many fundamental and great decisions were taken with respect to receiving Buddhism to Tibet. Right at the very beginning the idea of receiving Buddhism from India rather than from China--the latter was geographically more accessible, and hence would have avoided the hazardous journey through the gigantic Himalayas and the climatic inclemency--enabled Tibet to a have direct access to the original sources of Buddhist thought. Had it been adopted from China the nature of Buddhism in Tibet would have been altogether different and the rich tradition of Nalanda would have gone into oblivion and disappeared from the face of the earth. When Buddhism reached Tibet, it was a formidable military power in central Asia, expanding its vast territory as far as to the east, deep into what is today called China and to Iran in the west. Notwithstanding the escalation of power of territorial expansion and its dominance in the entire region, Tibet openheartedly started accommodating its culture to the influence of Indian Buddhism and thus
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 5 great transformations commenced in all spheres of life: political, social, educational and cultural. The Emperor, Songtsan Gampo (617-649 CE), who is known as the first great Dharma Emperor, married the princesses from Nepal and China, as a strategy of maintaining political relation with the neighboring countries. Both of the princesses were devout Buddhists who brought with them precious icons of the Buddha. Two major temples, Ramoche and Jokhang, were constructed to house them. The Emperor sent a group of brilliant students headed by his young minister to India to study at the feet of the great masters. Thonmi Sambhot was the only one who could return to Tibet; while his friends succumbed to hardships on the way and difficulties they faced. He pioneered the project of translating some of the teachings of the Buddha into Tibetan language. The erection of temples and statues and the translations of texts continued during the reign of the subsequent emperors as well. However, the Emperor Trisong Detsen (742-797), who is known as the second great Dharma Emperor, took up the entire project of establishing Buddhism rigorously and intensively on a large scale in all the areas ranging from spiritual to scholarly ones, arts and medical science. In the beginning he invited Acharya Shantarakshita (725-790), the abbot of Nalanda, the most celebrated centre of Buddhist learning in India. On his arrival in Tibet, the emperor encountered strong resistance from the indigenous religious orthodox. As a result the project of establishing Buddhism on a large scale had to be suspended. Acharya Shantarakshita advised the Emperor to invite the great master Padmasambhava from India. It was done accordingly, and the latter paved the way for further flowering of Buddhism and the construction of the Samye Monastery, which was planned earlier. Acharya Shantarakshita came back to Tibet and ordained a group of Tibetans. This marked the founding of Bhikshu Sangha in Tibet. Without the body of the ordained monastics we would not have had the Buddha Dharma as it has reached us today. The Emperor reinforced the work of translation of the Buddha's teachings and the works of the Indian masters by systematically organizing the entire enterprise. He established a translation center at Samye monastery. The most venerable and celebrated Indian masters were invited from the great monasteries for the monumental work of translating the enormous corpus of literature. On the other hand, Tibetan youngsters were sent to India to study in the monastic universities,
6 세계각국의대장경역경 while many studied with those in Tibet. This trend of inviting Indian masters and sending Tibetan students and scholars to study at the great learning centers continued for centuries with a break only during the disintegration of Tibet. Under the Emperor's supervision detailed guidelines were formulated and lexicons were created for an authentic translation. The translation of every work was done in collaboration with an Indian master and a Tibetan lotsawa, translator. Translation of each and every work was to be approved by a supervising editorial board. The authenticity and originality of the source texts were preserved in the Tibetan version through not only maintaining the lexical and thematic meaning of the text, but also transmitting the spirit of the text. This is the most important part of the Tibetan translation of the texts that is often missed in modern translations. It is a unique example of maintaining high standards of translation for any kind of similar work anywhere and any time. The most challenging situation before the scholars was to bring the content of Buddhism into Tibetan language maintaining the originality of the text. Not only the texts of Buddhist philosophy and spirituality were to be translated but also the texts belonging to many other disciplines were also to be translated. Many rules were framed to standardize the translation so that accuracy could be maintained. Some of the rules mentioned in the da-jor-bam- po-nyis-pa (sgra-sbyor-bam-po gnyis-pa) are as follows: 1. The translation should be done in such a manner that meaning of the Dharma could be brought into Tibetan language without distortion. 2. In the case of translating the verses, do not disturb the order if the order of the lines in the Indian language can be maintained while keeping the literal and thematic meaning. 3. If the meaning can be better retained and it is more convenient, the order of the lines may be rearranged in the translation accommodating the content in the same verse either in a verse of four or six lines. 4. In the case of prose, syntactical order may not be maintained for the convenience of bringing both the literal and thematic meaning. 5. When a single Indian word refers to many Tibetan words, assign the word, which is contextually appropriate. 6. The Sanskrit words like Gautama refers to word, direction, earth, rays,
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 7 diamond, cow, heaven and the like; and the word like Kausika refers to person who brings kush grass, skilled person, person who likes lotus, owl, treasure holder and the like. However, since such words refer to many meanings, if they are translated referring to a particular meaning they would not bear the other meanings. When there is no particular reason in translating such words, such words should not be translated, rather the Sanskrit word should be retained. 7. When there are Sanskrit words, which are deployed everywhere, the Tibetan word for such should be similarly applicable without restrains. 8. While translating the names of place, animal, flower, plants etc., if the Tibetan word is not comprehensible and understandable and still raises question to which it refers, even though it renders a general meaning, the Indian word should be retained and the Tibetan words: yul (place), me-tog (flower) etc. should be added at the beginning. 9. While literally translating the numbers in Sanskrit, such as, half and twelve hundreds, it should rather be translated straightforward in Tibetan language as one thousand, two hundred and fifty which is easily understandable. 10. The Sanskrit prefixes and adjectival forms such as pari, sama, upa, can be appropriately translated literally by deploying Tibetan words like yons-su, yan-dag-pa, nye-bar. 11. The Sanskrit words which do not refer to any particular meaning do not need to be represented by any Tibetan word rather they may be managed according to the context. 12. The synonyms should be translated appropriately as prevalent in Tibetan language adopting a comprehensible word. 13. With respect to the order of usage of the honorific words for the Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and Sravakas, honorific words should be used for the Buddhas and medium and lower words should be deployed for others. These points are formulated as the principle methods for the translation of the Dharma. The decision to translate the canonical literature into Tibet's indigenous language was another major step that made the entire corpus accessible for the Tibetans. This eventually proved to be far excelling contribution of Tibetan scholars namely
8 세계각국의대장경역경 the creation of extensive corpus of literature, massive intellectual and spiritual enterprises throughout the country and the permeation of Buddhism into everyday life of common people. Thus Buddhism, we can say, vitally nourished the very culture of the nation. The third great Dharma Emperor, Ralpachen extended the royal patronage to Buddhism in a similar way for deepening its impact in Tibet. When it was observed that the earlier translations required revision in order to make them more authentic, the work of revision was undertaken comparing various versions of the Indian texts treasured at different places, and often consulting the recensions from Bengal, Kashmir, Magadh and Gandhara. The number of the title and the various divisions of the Kagyur (translation of the teachings of the Buddha) is as follows: Similarly, the number of titles and different areas of the works of the Indian masters translated into Tibetan language is as follows:
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 9 Among so many of the translators, the Lotsawas, of this era, three most distinguished ones were Kawa Paltseg, Chogro Luyi Gyaltsan and Shang Yeshe-De, who have made tremendous contribution to the monumental work of translation. While everything was moving with progressive strides, with great enthusiasm and fervor, there suddenly appeared a dark ominous cloud over the horizon of Tibetan history. The Emperor Ralpachen was assassinated in 838 CE followed by the ascension of the late monarch's younger brother, Langdarma, who not only discontinued the royal patronage but closed down the Buddhist monasteries and stopped the project of translation and other allied activities. Langdarma in turn was assassinated in 842 CE and thereafter the Tibetan Empire disintegrated for quite some time. This turn of events not only retarded the progress of Buddhism, but also of all other aspects of Tibet as a nation. Since the root of Buddhism had already struck deep into Tibetan mind and life, the political situation, although trying and harsh, could not dissuade or resist the Tibetans from reviving the monastic way of life and other intellectual, spiritual and cultural activities. The programme of getting Buddhism from India came to be resumed over again. Descendents of the Tibetan imperial family, who had resettled in the far Western region of Tibet, left no stone unturned to restore Buddhism in Tibet. They sent brilliant young boys to India and invited Indian masters resuming the earlier practice. Rinchen Sangpo, a great Lotsawa who returned in 988 CE as a scholar and a spiritual master translated several texts from Sanskrit, founded major monasteries and commissioned hundreds of stupas in the entire region of Western Tibet. With ardent effort the king of the region succeeded in inviting the great master Dipankara Srijnana, the renowned adept scholar who was the abbot of the famous Vikramashila monastic university in 1042 CE. While staying in Tibet he composed the text Bodhipathapradipa in Sanskrit that demonstrates the practice of gradual path according to which the practice of vinaya and the practice Mahayana, which emphasizes the cultivation of boundless compassion and love followed by the awakening of the bodhi-mind and in developing the view of selflessness (Anatama), are not only not contrary to the practice of tantra but that they are the mandatory foundations for the practice of tantra which is a sophisticated high level
10 세계각국의대장경역경 spiritual system that demands challenging prerequisites of spiritual qualification. With him and his disciple Domtonpa the school of Kadampa came into existence, which puts strong emphasis on the practice of renunciation, compassion and mind training. This school has influenced all of the later schools of Buddhism in Tibet. The Kadampa and the following schools are known as Sarma, the New Schools and the teachings that had prevailed earlier was known as Nyingma the Old School. Thus Buddhism in Tibet is also referred to as belonging to two eras. The Buddhism till Langdarma is known as the Earlier Dissemination and with the revival of monasticism in central Tibet followed by the active translation work, teaching and practice in the Western Tibet from the late 10th century onward is referred to as the Later Dissemination of Buddha Dharma. In the earlier period and in the beginning of revival process, although the brilliant Tibetan scholars composed now and then commentarial and independent texts, they remained focused primarily on the massive translation work of the Buddha's teaching and treatises of the Indian masters. In the later half of 11th century there appeared one of the most influential scholars, Patsab Nyimadag, who returned after studying for 24 year in India and made a great contribution to the promotion of Pransangika Madhyamaka philosophy, which later became the most influential view in Tibetan Buddhist philosophy. He, like Rinchen Sangpo, taught widely at various places particularly at the Sangphu and Phenpo, which were the great learning centers of the time. Marpa Lotsawa (1012-1097 CE) (1002-1097) a prominent scholar and spiritually realized translator went to India three times and studied with the great adept scholars, Mahasiddha Naropa (1016-1100) and Maitripa (1007-1087) of Nalanda. He, along with high level of intellectual knowledge like other Lotsawas, came back with advanced spiritual realization and transmission he had received from the masters. After his return to Tibet Marpa translated many treatises and trained many of his disciples and passed on the transmission to them. Milarepa (1028/1040-1111/1123) was among them who became the most celebrated yogi of Tibet attaining enlightenment. Marpa's lineage came to be known as Kagyu Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. This tradition later developed into branches and sub-branches with erudite spiritual masters. Another prominent scholar translator of the eleventh century was Drogmi Lotsawa Shakya Yeshe (993-1074), who studied in India for several years as a
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 11 disciple of the Indian master Viravajra, one of the lineage holders of Mahasiddha Virupa. After attaining status of spiritual master he returned to Tibet and received the teaching transmission of Lamdre, a Tantric system, from Gayadhara, an Indian master. He thereafter passed on the transmission to Khon Konchog Gyalpo (1034-1102)--belonging to an important Khon clan of central Tibet--who later founded the Sakya monastery in Tsang region of central Tibet. Eventually, with further development of monasteries and erudition in studies and practices, the tradition emerged in the form of a major tradition of Tibetan Buddhism known as the Sakya tradition. This tradition produced great many scholars. The foremost name, of the one is the Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092-1158), also known as the Sakya Pandita, who was a scholar of exceptional acumen and a great spiritual master. Thus by the11th and 12th centuries, well before Buddhism disappeared from India, the Buddha Dharma had already deeply established its roots in Tibet. The Tibetan scholars had already acquired maturity in academic expertise as well as in spiritual realization based on the extensive literature available in Tibetan language and were also energized by the close interaction with the Indian masters from whom they had received the spiritual transmissions, and also by the constant flow of Indian adept scholars and Tibetan students and scholars between India and Tibet. Hence we can observe that in these two centuries there was an incredible growth and development of Tibetan culture in wide areas of intellectual achievement, art and spirituality. The 13th century also passed with unabated fervent and enthusiasm. However, unfortunately, there was an abrupt discontinuation of the journey of the Indian masters and the Tibetan scholars between India and Tibet in the wake of the destruction of the great monastic universities of India, which led to the disappearance of Buddhism from India. Many monks and senior scholars came to Tibet as refugees. The abbot of Vikramshila, Shakyashribhadra, a great scholar, was also one among them who continued his activities of composing treatises, giving teaching and spiritual practices as Tibet was already second to India in respect of Buddha Dharma enfolding intensive spiritual practice and intellectual pursuits, particularly in the domain of Mahayana Buddhism. In the following centuries i.e. 14th, 15th and 16th there appeared many great thinkers, scholars and spiritual masters in succession who reinforced the
12 세계각국의대장경역경 flourishing of Buddha Dharma. We also see that during this period consolidation of the works and literatures already translated from Indian languages mainly from Sanskrit and further advancement in various fields of study, particularly in philosophy, through serious interactions among the schools on philosophical issues. Buton Rinchen Drub (1290-1364), was a great scholar with mastery over numerous fields. He was a multi-linguist and also a spiritual master who compiled and edited the sutras, teachings of the Buddha and the shastras, the treatises of the Indian masters running into around five thousand titles in three hundred volumes for the first time. He himself authored treatises on a wide range of subjects running into twenty-eight volumes. His works, like the works of many other outstanding masters in Tibetan Buddhist tradition, are studied in all the traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsan (1292-1361) founded the Jonang school with his specific interpretation of Madhyamika philosophy known as shentong which was critiqued by scholars of other traditions. Bodong Chogle Namgyal (1766-1451) was a scholar of promise and an exceptionally prolific writer. He authored 137 volumes of work covering extensive fields. His tradition and the Jonang tradition did not continue beyond 17th century. Je Tsongkapa Lobsang Dagpa (1357-1419), who studied with the Sakya scholars, particularly, with Rendawa Shonu Lodo, founded the Gedenpa school, the last major school of Tibetan Buddhism. He authored eighteen volumes of works making significant contribution to various fields, specifically, to the study of Madhyamika philosophy. This great thinker and spiritual master was followed by his direct disciples who were adept scholars. They composed many treatises in order to enhance the understanding of the thoughts of Tsongkhapa in the line of philosophical view of Nagarjuna and other Prasangika madhyamika masters of India. Later through centuries the scholars belonging to this tradition kept on authoring extensive literature. In a similar manner the followers and later scholars of other Tibetan traditions wrote treatises extensively for the clarification of the views of their respective masters as well as meeting the contemporary challenges in philosophical issues. In as late as the end of nineteenth and beginning of twentieth century a prominent master of Nyingmapa, the earliest Tibetan Buddhist school, Jamgon Mipham Rimpoche (1846-1912), who was a prolific author wrote several treatises covering a wide range of areas specifically on philosophical views. This trend continued in Tibet till the end of the first half of twentieth century.
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 13 It must not be construed that Tibet had more than one forms of Buddhism as often the names of the sects are supposed to be. In point of fact there was and is only one form of Buddhism. What is important is that there are no sects even, but different traditions based on emphasis of certain practices and some are named after location. As we have seen they emerged at different times following hallowed teachers. They equally emphasize on the monastic system following the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya, which is one of the three existing vinaya traditions of ancient Indian Buddhist monasticism. The other two are: the Theravada tradition, which is prevalent in the South Asian countries, where pali tradition is in vogue and the Dharmagauptika tradition, which is practiced in the countries where Chinese Buddhism is in vogue. The Tibetan traditions subscribe to the madhyamika philosophical view along with the study of other philosophical schools of Buddhism: Vijnanavada, Sautrantika and Vaibhasika as presented in the wide range of treatises of Indian and Tibetan masters. They also study on various other disciplines like logic, epistemology, Buddhist spiritual system, language, grammar, poetry, medicine, astronomy, arts etc. The study of Vinaya, Sutra and Abhidharma and practice of Shila, Samadhi and Prajna are the core activities of the monasteries. The study of Tantra is allowed for the advanced students who are capable to go through the complex system of the four schools of tantra. Some times misconception about tantra is seen among those who are not familiar with the system. The tantra tradition, which came from the hallowed masters of those great Indian monastic universities, is a part of the living tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. It is certainly a high level spiritual practice. The foundational ground of tantric system is the philosophical view of emptiness and dependent arising and practice of Bodhicitta. Many of the scholars belonging to a particular tradition are proficient in other traditions as well and students of a tradition do go to study at the monasteries of other traditions. Thus the Tibetan schools of various traditions remained vibrant and active in intellectual and spiritual pursuits without interruption throughout the history of Tibetan Buddhism. They maintained the tradition of Nalanda and other Indian monastic universities keeping up the high ideals of spiritual practice associated with active engagement in intellectual exercises. These dedicated endeavors made the frontiers of studies and research extended further beyond. Tibetans preserved the intellectual and spiritual culture of the great Indian monastic universities as a
14 세계각국의대장경역경 highly treasured legacy. Thus it would be truer to say that the texts were translated, the tradition was transmitted and the entire academic and spiritual culture of Nalanda and other great Buddhist learning centers were virtually transplanted to Tibet and grew there vigorously. Plethora of monasteries came up all over Tibet where monasticism and spiritual practice were the prime activities along with study and training for the youngsters and scholastic exercises generated galaxies of scholars, and highly realized spiritual masters and thereby tens of thousands of treatises were authored pertaining to meditational methods, spiritual realization, philosophy, logic, epistemology and Buddhist mental system with the foundation of Vinaya, Sutra and Abhidharma and different other fields of studies like literature, medicine, astronomy, grammer, poetry, arts etc. The mountains and the caves were occupied by the meditators, who, avoiding social life, engaged themselves in intensive meditation and practiced exclusively for the accomplishment of their spiritual attainment. Constructed in vast numbers in the valleys, the Stupas and temples served the spiritual purpose of the masses. This reflects the popularity of Buddhism in Tibet, the roof of the world. By the end of first half of twentieth century there were more than six thousand monasteries and temples all over Tibet. From Tibet Buddhism went to various other countries in Asia since 12th century onward. Mongolia, some states in Russia like Buriat, Kalmikia, Tuva and Kazakistan, Himalayan region of Northern India, Nepal and Bhutan received the Buddhist tradition from Tibet. Till this day they follow the Tibetan Buddhist tradition in both intellectual and spiritual practices. Spread of Tibetan Buddhism in the modern world After the invasion of Tibet by China in 1959, His Holiness the Dalai Lama and many other eminent scholars and spiritual masters left Tibet and took refuge in India and other countries around the world. Although this event was certainly unfortunate for Tibet and Tibetans this became instrumental in the fast dissemination of Buddhism and particularly, the Tibetan tradition of Buddhism to Asian countries and Western world. In India the arrival of His Holiness and the eminent scholars brought the revival of India s Ancient heritage of wisdom belonging to those great monastic universities
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 15 among which the Nalanda was the most prominent. Several monasteries got established in various different parts of India where thousands of monk students study hailing from the Tibetan diaspora, Himalayan regions and from several countries in Asia as well as from Western countries. Academic institutions were established among which the Central Tibetan Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies in Sarnath, established in 1967, is worth to mention for its contribution to the preservation of Tibetan culture and wisdom as well as reviving the ancient Indian tradition of wisdom through restoring the lost Indian treatises from Tibetan sources and making them available to general Indian readers by translating them into Hindi language. The same institution, which is now known as the Central University of Tibetan Studies, has research departments, which are devoted to the restoration of near about one hundred treatises of Indian masters from Tibetan sources and their translation into Hindi language. Many rare Sanskrit manuscripts are critically edited and published. With the guidance and assistance of the Tibetan scholars, thousands of texts have been translated into English and other European languages in the past four decades in the Western world. Such enterprises were undertaken by academic institutions, individual scholars and general public organisations. Due to lag of standard norms of translation, there is no uniformity in translations in terms of vocabulary and style, which is a problem for the readers as it creates confusion. In many cases, the translations are carried out by scholars of target language without consulting the scholars of the source language which led to errors in the translation. The enterprise of translation is extremely important in the process of the transmission of texts, which is an important part of the tradition as it decides whether or not the literal body of the text is represented with authenticity. However, completing the textual translation is not the end of the job. Each text is associated with a tradition. Each text, as we have seen earlier, has layers that must be penetrated. The intellectual domain is the external layer, which is of course necessary and helpful in order to penetrate into the deeper layers of the texts, but only if it is exercised with proper orientation. Therefore, the three stages of hearing, contemplation and meditation are mandatory in order to accomplish the purpose the Buddha intended in giving the teachings, a purpose carried forward by the lineages of Buddhist masters.
16 세계각국의대장경역경 Therefore, the corporal body of the text, which serves the foundation of the tradition associated with it, must be authentic without which later cannot be maintained genuinely. For this reason Tibet did an unparalleled work in translating the huge corpus of literature into Tibetan language with great authenticity. The second stage is the intellectual study of the text, which has an unbroken lineage of transmission to be maintained. In this regard Tibet maintained a very rich tradition of intensive and comprehensive study and research by establishing several hundreds of monasteries, which made tremendous contribution to the preservation and further advancement of Buddhist studies through their works as commentaries to the Buddha s teachings and the treatises of Indian masters. There is also a large number of independent works. The number of works of Tibetan masters goes into several hundreds of thousands, which stands as the largest corpus of Buddhist literature in the world. The following chart shows the number of the works of the Indian masters and Tibetan masters in the five major areas of study. The following chart shows some of the particular treatises and the number of their commentaries by Indian masters and Tibetan masters.
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 17 The third stage is the realization of the spirit of the text, which is the sole purpose of the entire enterprise. For the fulfillment of this stage the earlier two stages play foundational role as their qualities decide the degree of the accomplishment of the realization, the third stage. If the works on these texts are confined to the academic purpose, that would undermine the sole purpose of the Buddhist texts. Therefore, the translation work must be carried out with the motivation of accomplishing the realization. This would bring a big difference to the quality of the translation. In the work of translation of Buddhist literature, utmost attention must be paid to the qualification of the translator, both in terms of Knowledge of the languages, the target language and the source language and the command of subject of the text and acquaintance of the tradition to which the text belongs. Translation must be carried out under the guidance of scholar of the subject.
18 세계각국의대장경역경 역경과티벳불교의전통 Prof. 게쉐나왕삼뗀 ( 한국어역 : 김현구 ) 석가모니붓다께서는영성의의미를새롭게정의하였다. 그리하여인도, 나아가범세계적차원에서종교와철학분야에영성을하나의패러다임으로제시했다. 무엇보다주목할것은그의가르침이철학적견지와지침에있어양극단을배제함으로써, 관념적오류로부터벗어나영성의실현을추구하는데중도 ( 中道 ) 의길을견지했다는점이다. 붓다는보드가야에서깨달음을성취하신후, 녹야원에서사성제 ( 四聖諦 ) 에기반한진리의가르침을전해주셨다. 대승의수행자들은그자리에서붓다가삼전법륜가운데으뜸가는초전법륜을불교의영적체계와철학적견해의구조적기반으로지정하셨다고말한다. 즉붓다는순관과역관으로이루어진연기법을우리에게예시하신바, 그것은바로윤회의작용과열반의성취였다. 전생애에걸쳐붓다는서로다른지위, 취향, 남다른성벽과재능을지닌다양한근기의제자들에게폭넓은가르침을펼쳐주셨다. 이것이바로각기다른승 ( 乘 ) 들, 즉세가지탈것으로은유되는다양한진리의전달방식이탄생한배경이라하겠다. 다시말해, 성문, 대승, 그리고금강승으로칭해지는불교의주류라할세가지전통들이바로그것이다. 붓다께서살아계실동안불교는인도전역에확산되었고붓다사후에도불교는인도구석구석, 후미지고외딴곳까지널리퍼져나갔다. 그기간, Vikramshila, Takshila, Odantapuri, Ratnagiri 등, 수없이위대한승원들이출현하였고, 특히나란다대학은그가운데가장출중한곳이었다. 성단 ( 星團 ) 처럼빛나는스승들의존재에힘입어이러한승원들은지적체계들, 즉철학, 인식론, 논리학과여타의학문들의발전에혁혁한공헌을했다. 따라서이들승원들은지성을추구하는위대한학습의요람으로서만아니라, 영적성취의거대한공간으로서기능하였고, 이는곧정신성과학문적훈련이독특하게어우러지는사례가되었다. 서기 7세기무렵티벳은불교를국가종교로승인하는결정을내림으로써매우중요한역사상변화의국면을맞이하였고이는영성수행과사상전반, 지식체계및의학, 천문학, 예술분야, 등의전영역을재구성하는결과를이끌었으며, 나아가민중들의삶깊숙한곳까지그영향을미치게끔되었다. 인도로부터불교를수용할무렵티벳은 Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramshila, Takshila 와같은위대한승원들속에서숨막힐정도로풍성하고심오한지적체계와수승한영적수행법을만나게되는데, 이들대학들은경, 율, 논연구를겸비함과아울러영적성취와최상위의수련이가능한교육의중심지로서위용을떨치고있었다. 위교육기관들은, 그들의독보적리더격이었던나란다대학과함께또한많은교과목들을발전시키고꽃피우는데필요한다양한
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 19 지혜의제분야들을연구하였다. 예컨대철학, 논리학, 인식론, 심리학, 의학, 천문학, 야금학, 예술, 시, 문법, 다양한언어등등, 광범위한분야들이종횡무진으로제각기발전을도모하였다. 이들위대한지식의전당들은비불교전통들과의교류를통하여인도의지성적발전에매우중요한기여를했다. 따라서인도의불교는티벳이그를수용할당시바로그발전의정점을찍고있었던것이다. 그것은티벳으로서는엄청난기회였다. 결과적으로티벳은불교전통의모든영역과위대한승원들, 특히나란다에서주로연구되던제학문영역들의직속계승자가되었다. 되돌아보면우리는티벳이불교를수용함에있어많은근본적이고도훌륭한결정들을내렸다는것을알수있다. 애초, 지리적으로더가까운중국보다오히려위험을감수하며거대한히말라야를넘어인도로부터불교를수용하려한그생각은어떠한가. 그로인해티벳은불교사상의시원 ( 始原 ) 에바로접근할수있었다. 만약티벳이중국으로부터불교를받아들였다면아마모든것이달라졌을것이고, 나란다의풍성한전승은지상에서잊혀지고사라졌을것이다. 불교가티벳에전해질즈음중앙아시아는강력한군사력을보유, 오늘날중국이라칭하는동아시아깊숙이, 서쪽으로는이란에까지그힘을한껏뻗어영토확장에주력하고있었다. 아시아전역이점차거세어지는영토확장세에휩싸이는와중에도불구하고티벳은가슴을활짝열고스스로의문화를인도불교에기꺼이조율해나가기시작했으며, 그에따라정치, 사회, 교육과문화등, 모든범위의삶에커다란변용이시작되었다. 최초의위대한법왕송쩬감뽀 ( 서기617-649) 는인접국들과정치적유대를위해네팔, 중국의공주들과정략결혼을했다. 두공주는모두독실한불교신자로서귀중한붓다의성상을티벳에가져왔다. 라모체와조캉은그두명의공주들에게헌정된두개의주요사원이다. 황제는젊은대사가인솔하는영민한학생집단을인도에파견하여대스승의발치에서수학하도록했다. 그들가운데티벳에돌아온이는퇸미삼보따가유일했다. 반면그의도반들은도중에온갖간난신고 ( 艱難辛苦 ) 를겪으며스러져갔다. 그는몇몇붓다의가르침을티벳어로옮기는불사에앞장섰다. 불교사원들과조상 ( 彫像 ) 의축조및경전의번역들이다음황제들의치세내내계속되었다. 한편, 두번째위대한법왕인황제티쏭뒈첸 ( 서기742-797) 은영적분야에서부터학문적인것들, 예술과의학까지를총망라하여전영역과부문에걸쳐불교를강력하고엄정하게구축한업적으로유명하다. 그처럼웅장한규모로불교의역사를추진하던초기무렵에, 법왕은인도에서불교교육의요지로최고의명성을떨치고있던나란다의대승원장샨타락쉬따 ( 서기 725-790) 를초빙했다. 그러나승원장이티벳에도착하자황제는티벳정통토착종교세력들의거센반발에부딪혔고그로인해대규모로불교를융성하려던일단의계획은유보되고만다. 승원장은황제에게인도에서대스승파드마삼바바를초청하라조언했다. 황제는그의말에따랐고결국불교의개화는더진전되었으며, 더일찍이계획했던삼예사원역시건립되었다. 승원장은다시티벳으로돌아왔고일군의티벳인들에게승직을하사했다. 이것이바로비구상가의설립이다. 만약출가승들의존재가없었다면오늘날우리에게붓다의법이란결코
20 세계각국의대장경역경 존재할수없었으리라. 황제는붓다의가르침을티벳어로옮기는일과인도의스승들이이룬성과들을체계적으로정리할수있도록사람들을독려했다. 그는또한삼예사원에번역기관을설립하였다. 위대한사원에거하고있던저명하고지고한인도의스승들이학술대전집번역이라는기념비적인과업을위해티벳에속속초청되었다. 티벳에서많은탐구와학습이이루어지는동안한편으로는티벳의젊은이들은승원에서수학하고자인도로향했다. 인도의스승들을초빙하고티벳의청년들과학자들을위대한학문중심지에서수학하도록파견하는일은티벳의분열시기를빼고는수세기동안지속되었다. 황제의감독아래전작업의철저한준거 ( 遵據 ) 들이구축되었고, 정확한번역을위한사전들또한그때탄생했다. 모든번역작업은인도의스승들과티벳의역경사들간에협업으로진행되었으며모든번역작업은이를점검하는담당기관에의해전과정이검토되고인증되었다. 원전의진본및초본은티벳어버전으로보존되었는데이는어휘적, 주제적의미를견지하는차원에서뿐아니라경전의영적전승을위해서도그러했다. 이점이티벳역경에서가장주요한부분이며현대번역에서종종놓치고있는부분이다. 역경에있어서높은기준이충족된독특한사례인것이다. 학자들에게가장난제였던것은원전을그대로유지하면서붓다의가르침을티벳어로옮기는작업이었다. 불교철학및영성관련경전들뿐아니라수많은기타과목들또한번역되었다. 그과정속에서표준번역지침들이구축되었고그에따라적확한번역작업이가능해졌다. 다음은 sgra-sbyor-bam-po-gnyis-pa( 이권본역어석, 二卷本譯語釋 ) 에제시된번역의원칙들이다. 1. 번역작업은아래원칙에따른다, 즉다르마 ( 法, Dharma) 의의미를티벳어로옮길때그의미가왜곡되지않아야한다. 2. 시편 ( 詩篇 ) 들을번역할경우, 인도어시편의각행들이원문및주제적의미에따라충실하게배열되어있다면그순서를흐트리지않는다. 3. 만약그의미가더풍부해질수있고적합하다면시송 ( 詩頌 ) 들은번역작업중, 동일시송내 4행또는 6행짜리시송의문맥이통할경우적절히재배열되어도된다. 4. 산문의경우, 문장배열은문자적, 주제적의미면에서편의에맞춰변형가능하다. 5. 하나의인도어단어가티벳어로는여러뜻으로번역될수있을경우, 문맥에잘맞도록이를배정한다. 6. Gautama 와같은산스크리트어에해당하는단어에는방향, 지구, 광선들, 다이아몬드, 소, 하늘이있고, Kausika 라는단어는힌두쿠시의목초를운반하는사람, 훈련된자, 연꽃을좋아하는사람, 부엉이, 보물을소유한자등의의미가들어있다. 그런단어들은동시에많은의미를함유하므로특정한의미로옮길경우다른의미들을놓쳐버리게된다. 그런단어들을번역해야할별다른이유가없다면그런단어들은굳이번역할필요가없고차라
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 21 리산스크리트어형태그대로를명기하는편이낫다. 7. 어디에나범용되는산스크리트어가있다면그와유사한티벳어를제한없이유사하게활용하도록한다. 8. 장소, 꽃, 식물등등의명칭을번역할때만약티벳어로는그의미가잘공유되지도, 이해되지도않는데다의문마저생긴다면그것이일반적의미로쓰일지라도인도어는그냥두고티벳어를해당되는단어앞에부가하도록한다. 예를들어 yul( 장소 ), me-tog( 꽃 ) 등의방식으로. 9. 산스크리트어숫자를티벳문자로옮겨야할때, 예를들어 오십과백이열둘 이라면티벳어로는다음과같이그대로번역한다, 즉 일천, 이백그리고오십, 이라고. 10. 산스크리트접두사와형용사형들, 예를들어빠리, 싸마, 우빠, 등은티벳어로 yons-su, yan-dag-pa, nye-bar 로각각대응하여적절히번역하면된다. 11. 어떠한특정의미에해당되지않는산스크리트단어를굳이어떤티벳단어로대체하려애쓸필요는없으며이는문맥에따라적절히통용되어도된다. 12. 동의어들은티벳어가운데이해가능한단어를채택, 더효과적으로적절히번역하도록한다. 13. 붓다, 보살들, 그리고성문 ( 聲門 ) 들에게는관례에따라존대어를사용하는데, 존대어는붓다들에게항용 ( 恒用 ) 되어야하고평어나하대어는그밖에존재들에게적용되도록할것이다. 이들은다르마를번역함에있어원칙적인방식으로서공표하는바이다. 티벳고유의언어로역경을결정한일은, 티벳인들이불교의전 ( 全 ) 경전에가닿을수있도록또하나의주요한걸음을내딛는일이었다. 그로인해티벳학자들은눈부신성과, 환언하면제학문의창조적집대성, 광대한지적, 정신적계획들을온나라에창출하였고불교는일반서민들의일상깊숙이스며들게되었다. 그리하여, 불교는티벳의문화적토양에비옥한생기를불어넣어주었다. 세번째법왕랠빠첸의왕실에서는불교가티벳에더욱깊은영향을미칠수있게끔위와유사한방식으로불교를대폭지원했다. 초기역경작업들을보면더명확하게고칠부분들을발견하게된다. 개정및보수작업에서는각기다른장소에보존되었던여러가지인도경전들과대조하였고, Bengal, Kashmir, Magadh 그리고 Gandhara 의개정본들또한참조하였다. 각제목의수록번호와부수, 그리고다양한경장 ( 붓다의가르침 ) 번역은다음과같다 : 수록번호 ( 데게판 ) 부수 율부 1-7A 8 반야부 8-43 36(35) 화엄부 44 1 보적부 45-93 49 경부 94-359A 266
22 세계각국의대장경역경 십만탄트라 360-827 (468)471 고 ( 古 ) 탄트라 828-844 (17)18 시륜경소 845 1 다라니집 846-1108 (263)264 1113/1108 이와유사하게논서들의수록번호와부수것, 그리고인도의스승들이티벳어로역경한작업들의내역은아래와같다. 역경한논서 수록번호 ( 데게판 ) 와주석서들 부수 티벳주석서 ( 최소 ) 량평석 4210, 4216--- 12 500 입중론 3861, 3862, 3870 3 30-60 현관장엄론 3786-3791, 3793 21 150 중론송 3824, 3842, 3853, 3859, 3860 8 25 구사론 4089-4090--- 10 100 율경 4117, 4119-4122--- 5 50 묘음성명 ( 聲明 ) 기론 4297, 4298 2 20 잔드라성명기론경 4269, 4270, 4271, 4272, 4279 5 15 가라파경 4282, 4284, 4288 3 25 파니니성명기론경 4420 1 40 궁정시 ( 宮廷詩 ) 경 4301 1 100 당대의수많은역경사들가운데에도특히두드러지게탁월한세사람이있었으니, 까와뺄쩩, 쪽로루이겔첸그리고샹에쉐데, 이들은역경작업에있어말할수없으리만큼기념비적공헌을한분들이다. 모든일이엄청난열광과열정속에성큼성큼앞으로나아가는동안, 갑자기티벳의역사에어두운전조가드리우기시작했다. 서기 838년황제랠빠첸이암살되고동생랑다르마가왕위를계승하였는데, 그는지금까지왕실이했던모든불교관련작업의지원을중단했고, 불교승단들또한폐쇄하였으며역경및여타협력활동일체를중단해버렸다. 서기 842년랑다르마역시피살되었고그로부터티벳제국은상당기간분열되었다. 일련의변화로인해티벳은불교뿐아니라전부문의국가적발전또한쇠퇴하게되었다. 하지만불교는이미티벳인들의마음과생활속깊이뿌리내렸으므로, 아무리정치적상황이괴롭고혹독할지라도티벳인들이수행자의삶, 여타의지적, 영적, 문화적활동을다시부흥시키려하는일단의노력을단념하게할수도, 방해할수도없었다. 티벳서남단에정착한황가의후손들은티벳땅에다시불교를복원하기위해갖은노력을다했다. 황실에서는영민한젊은이들을인도에파견하고인도의스승들을초청하던선대의관례를재개했다. 위대한역경사린첸상뽀가서력 988년학자이자영적스승이되어귀국했고,
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 23 그는다수의산스크리트어경전들을번역했는데이들경전들은서부티벳전지역에지정된수백개의사리탑과주요승원들에서발견된것들이다. 국왕의열정적인노력은마침내 1042 년, 유명한승원 Vikramashila 의총장이자고명한명성이자자했던대스승아티샤 (Dipankara Srijnana) 를티벳에초청하는성과를낳았다. 티벳에체류하는동안그는 보리도등론 (Bodhipathapradipa) 을산스크리트어로저술했다. 이는수행의단계적수행과정이명시된계행과대승수행에관한내용과보리심을깨움으로써무한한자비심과자애심을배양하고무아의이치를터득하는내용을담고있다. 상술한수행과정은밀교수행에상치되지않을뿐더러그에필히수반되어야할근본훈련이기도했다. 여기서밀교수행은영적능력의성취를위해선행되어야할수승한단계의정신성을이른다. 아티샤와그의제자, 돔된빠는절제, 자비와마음수련을특히강조하는까담빠를설립했다. 까담빠는이후티벳에출현하는모든불교학파에영향을주었다. 까담빠와그에이어지는학파들은새로운학파로서, 전 ( 前 ) 시대를풍미한가르침들은옛학파로나뉜다. 하여티벳불교는두개의연원 ( 淵源 ) 에속하게끔형성되었다. 황제랑다르마까지의불교가티벳의초기전파기라면, 티벳중앙의승원주의의부활과아울러 10세기후반부터지속적으로티벳서부에서발흥된활발한역경작업, 가르침과수행의흐름을불법의후기전파기라이를수있겠다. 불교전파의전반기및부흥기의초기, 뛰어난티벳학자들이때때로주석서들이며독자적인논서들을저술하긴했으나무엇보다그들의으뜸가는관심은붓다의가르침과인도스승들의논서들을대규모로번역하는작업이었다. 11세기중반, 티벳에서의불교보급후반기, 최고로영향력있는학자들가운데한사람인빠찹니마닥이등장했다. 그는인도에서 24년동안수학하고돌아와티벳불교철학의관점을형성하는데에가장큰영향을끼친중관귀류파 (Pransangika Madhyamaka) 철학을일으키는데에혁혁한공헌을했다. 그는린첸상뽀처럼여러지역특히그시기수학중심지였던쌍푸와뺀뽀에서지도하였다. 걸출한학자이며성취자인역경사마르빠 (1012-1097 CE) 는인도를세번방문하여위대한학자들인나란다대학의대성취자나로빠 (1016-1100) 와마이뜨리빠 (1007-1087) 와함께수학했다. 높은지적수준의여타역경사들과어깨를나란히했던그는한층고양된영적각성을터득한채돌아와스승들에게받은가르침을고국에전파하기시작했다. 마르빠는많은논서들을번역하였고, 많은제자들을길러냈으며자신이스승으로부터받은가르침을온전히전달하는데힘썼다. 그러한제자들가운데특히밀라레빠 (1028/1040-1111/1123) 는깨달음을성취한티벳의요기 (Yogi) 로서가장높은이름을떨치게되었다. 마르빠의계보는티벳불교에서까규전승으로알려지게되었다. 이전통은훗날교학과영성모두를아우르는스승들과함께주요갈래와하위갈래들로발전해나갔다. 그밖에 11세기에걸출한역경사로는독미로짜와싸꺄예쉐 (993-1074) 가있다. 그는위대한성취자비루빠의계보를잇는인도의스승비라바즈라의제자가되어몇년동안인도에서수학했다. 영적스승의자격을얻은후티벳으로돌아온그는인도의스승가야다라가전수한
24 세계각국의대장경역경 밀교체계, 도과수행의가르침을전수받았다. 이후그는그것을, 중부티벳의중요한콘족일원인콘꼰촉겔뽀 (1034-1102) 에게전수하였는데, 그는훗날중부티벳의창지방에서싸꺄승단을세우게된다. 그리하여더발전된승단들과심오한교학과수행법들에힘입어하나의주요전통이등장하게되었는데이것이바로티벳불교의주요전통으로유명한샤카전승이다. 이전승의힘으로수많은위대한학자들이배출되었다. 가장주목할만한이름의하나가싸첸꾼가닝뽀 (1092-1158) 인데그는또한싸꺄판디타로도알려져있고, 독보적인통찰력을지닌학자였으며위대한영적스승이기도했다. 그러므로 11세기와 12세기, 인도에서불교가소멸하기전, 불법은이미티벳안에깊숙히뿌리를내렸음이틀림없다. 티벳의학자들은이미티벳어로불교문헌에접근할수있었던덕에, 교학적탐구및영적성취가무르익게되었다. 또한이들은영적전승을증득한인도의스승들과밀접한상호교류가있었고, 인도와티벳사이에끊임없는인도의최고학자들과티벳학생및학자들과의교분이한껏고무되었다. 이두세기동안티벳의문화는지적, 예술적, 영적분야모두에걸쳐괄목할만한성장과발전을이루었음을우리는알수있다. 티벳의 13세기또한불법에있어불퇴전의열정으로가득한세기였다. 그러나, 갑작스레인도에서불교의소멸을가져온불행한사건들이벌어지기시작했다. 곧, 인도의위대한사원대학들이파괴되면서인도와티벳간에스승이며학자들간의활발한교류가그만중단되어버린것이다. 그당시인도의많은승려들과중견학자들이난민의신분으로속속티벳에들어왔다. 그들중한사람인 Vikramshila의대승원장인대학자샤꺄스리바드라는활발하게주석서들을저술하고학문적가르침과영적수행법을널리펼쳤다. 당시티벳은이미강력한영적수행과지적추구를아우르며, 특히대승지향의불법을숭앙 ( 崇仰 ) 하는제 2의인도였다. 다음세기들, 예컨대 14,15세기와 16세기에는불법의융성을촉진한뛰어난사상가와학자, 영적스승들이연달아다수출현했다. 우리는또한이무렵, 주로산스크리트어에서티벳어로이미번역된학문적연구성과들이통합되고, 나아가다양한학문분야, 특히철학적주제를놓고여러학파들끼리진지하게상호논쟁하며이룩한발전의성과들을엿볼수있다. 부똔린첸둡 (1290-1364) 은여러분야를망라, 통달한위대한학자였다. 그는많은언어들을구사했고또한붓다의가르침이담긴경전들과인도스승들의논서들을편찬하고감수하였다. 특히그는인도스승들의논서들을처음으로모두 3백권에약 5천개의표제로합산하는과업을완수했다. 그는스스로도저자가되어폭넓은주제에관한소론들 28권을집필했다. 그의작업들, 예를들어티벳불교전통속에다수출현한위대한스승들의연구를집적한그의작업성과는모든티벳불교전통에서필수적인교학자료로쓰이고있다. 돌뽀빠셰랍겔첸 (1292-1361) 은여타의전승학자들이타공설로비판하는중관철학을독창적으로해석함으로써조낭파를세웠다. 보동촉레남겔 (1366-1451) 은전도유망한학자이자다작 ( 多作 ) 을한저술가였다. 그는무수한분야를넘나들며 137권이나되는책을저술했다. 하
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 25 지만그의전통과조낭의전통, 양자모두 17세기너머까지는존재하지못하였다. 싸꺄파, 특히레다와쇼누로도와함께수학한쫑까빠롭상닥빠 (1357-1419) 는겔룩빠를세웠는데, 이는티벳불교의가장마지막주요학파이다. 그는다양한분야에기념비적인저작들 18권을썼는데특히중관철학에관한연구가손에꼽힌다. 뒤이어위대한사상가이자영적스승이던그의직계제자들이잇달아출현한다. 그리고그들대부분은최고의학자들이었다. 그들은용수보살의철학적견해와여타인도귀류중관파스승들의계보를잇는쫑까빠의사상적이해를강화하고자많은논서들을저술했다. 수세기동안쫑까빠전통에귀속된그학자들은지속적으로광범위한학문적저술에힘썼다. 마찬가지로다른티벳전승들을따르는추종자들이며후대의학자들또한, 당대 ( 當代 ) 철학적쟁점들에직면하였으며각자존경하는스승들의견해를명확하게한여러유형의주석서들을작성하였다. 최근 19세기말과 20세기초에도최초의티벳불교학파인닝마빠의탁월한스승, 잠곤미팜린포체 (1846-1912) 는특히철학적견해에있어광대한영역을아우르던집필가로서, 여러편의논서들을양산하였다. 이런경향성은 20세기전반의마지막무렵까지도지속되던티벳고유의참으로유장한전통이었다. 여러교파명들이자주거론된다해서티벳에여러불교종파들이존재한다고생각해서는안된다. 사실상티벳에는과거에도지금에도오직단하나의불교만이존재한다. 여기서요점은심지어티벳불교엔그어떤종파도없다는것이다, 다만어떤특정수행법을강조하다보니, 그리고어떤지역의명칭을따른이름을상용하다보니 티벳불교에는교파 ( 종파 ) 가많다 라는오해를빚기도하는것이다. 지금까지살펴본대로상이한시대마다숭고한스승들이출현하셨다. 그분들은한결같이고대인도의불교승원전통에연면히내려오는세가지계율전통중하나인근본설일체유부계율을준수하는승원체계를강조하셨다. 나머지다른두가지가운데하나는빨리전통이우세한남아시아국가들의테라바다전통이며, 다른하나는중국불교가지배적인국가들이주로수행하는법장부전통이그것이다. 티벳불교의전통은, 여타불교학파들과마찬가지로, 유식학파, 경량부, 설일체유부등광범위한영역을아우르는인도와티벳스승들의논서속에명시된중관학파의철학적관점을따른다. 티벳의전통은그밖에다양한교과영역들, 논리학, 인식론, 불교의지성적구조와체계, 언어학, 문법학, 시, 의학, 천문학, 예술등에대한연구또한소홀히하지않았다. 물론경, 율, 논, 계행, 선정과지혜에대한연구가승원에서이루어진핵심적활동이었다. 탄트라연구는네갈래의복잡한탄트라체계를통과할수있는자질이필요했다. 따라서그과정에는보다진보된학생들만이참여할수있었다. 그런체계에익숙하지않은사람들은탄트라체계를오해하기도한다. 탄트라전통은인도의여러대 ( 大 ) 승원들의스승들중에서도특히숭앙 ( 崇仰 ) 받는스승들로부터우리에게전해진것이며그것은지금도살아있는티벳불교전승의중요한일부이다. 탄트라는분명높은수준의영적훈련이며, 공성과연기라는철학적관점과보리심의수습이탄트라의근간을이룬다. 티벳에서는하나의특정전승을따르면서도다른전승에숙달된학자들이많고, 하나의전승을연구하는학승들역시다른전승의승원에수학하러가는일
26 세계각국의대장경역경 이중요하다. 그러므로다양한티벳의학파들은티벳불교사를관통하는내내어떤간섭이나방해없이지적, 영적인길을추구할수있었고, 오늘날에도그생생한활력을잃어버리지않게된것이다. 그들은활기차게지적수련에몰입함과아울러, 영적수행에있어높은이상을지적성과들과병합해냄으로써나란다며다른인도승원들의전통을연면히보존했다. 그토록헌신적인노력의결과, 티벳의학문과연구의경계는점점더멀리까지확장되었다. 티벳인들은위대한인도승원들의지적, 영적문화를매우고귀하고소중한유산으로보존했다. 그러므로이제는이렇게말하는것이보다더진실되리라. 불교및제학문의경전들은대부분티벳어로번역되었고, 그관련전통은티벳으로이송되었고, 나란다와여타학문의전당에서이룩된모든학문적, 영적문화의생명수 ( 生命樹 ) 는티벳땅에고스란히이식되어무럭무럭잘자라났다고말이다. 드디어티벳전역에승원들이차고넘치도록충만한시기가도래했다. 젊은이들에겐승원주의를바탕으로한영적훈련들이무엇보다으뜸가는과정이되었고, 학술적활동들을통해최고위급의영적스승들과빛나는성단 ( 星團 ) 같은학자들이양산되었다. 이와나란히명상의방법들, 영적각성, 철학, 논리학, 인식론과경, 율, 논에바탕을둔불교의정신적체계및여타문학, 의학, 천문학, 문법, 시, 예술등과관련하여서도수만권의저술이각각의주제에적합하게편찬되었다. 또한티벳의산과동굴은세속적삶을떠나영적성취를이루고자명상과수련에스스로를온전히몰입시키던명상가들로빼곡했다. 아울러일반서민들의영적성장을돕고자수많은사원과탑들이골짝골짝마다건립되었다. 이로써세계의지붕, 티벳에불교가얼마나대중화되었는지우리는알수있다. 20세기전반이막바지에이를무렵, 티벳전역에는 6천개가넘는승원들과절들이존재했던것이다. 12세기이후로부터티벳불교는아시아여러국가들로확산되었다. 몽고, Buriat, Kalmikia, Tuva와같은러시아의몇몇주 ( 州 ) 들이며히말라야권의북인도, 네팔, 부탄등이티벳으로부터불교의전통을받아들였다. 오늘날까지도이들지역에서는티벳의지적, 영적훈련의전통을따르고있다. 현대사회속의티벳불교 1959년중국이티벳을침공한이후, 달라이라마존자님과저명한학자들, 영적스승들은티벳땅을강제로떠나야했고인도와타국을떠돌며난민의신분으로살아가게되었다. 이는비록참담한사건이긴하나, 티벳불교의전통을아시아및서방사회에빠르게확산, 전파하는계기가되었다는것또한분명하다. 성하 ( 聖下 ) 와저명한학자들이인도땅에정착하게되자위대한나란다및수많은승원들속에연면히흐르던인도고대지혜의유산들이되살아나기시작했다. 히말라야권과아시아각국가및서방국가들의열렬한환호속에티베탄디아스포라
Translation and Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism 27 로도래한수천의학승들이수학 ( 修學 ) 하는여러승원들이인도각지에설립되었다. 학술교육기관들도속속설립되었다. 그가운데 1967년, 녹야원에설립된 The Central Tibetan Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies 를손꼽을수있다. 이곳에서는티벳의오랜문화와지혜의보존해왔을뿐아니라고대인도의지혜를부흥시켰고, 티벳원전을통하여사라진인도의논전들을복원, 과거티벳이그러했듯보통의인도인들이귀한옛자료들을읽을수있도록힌두어번역작업또한수행했다. 위연구소와동일기관이나현재는티벳학중앙대학교 (the Central University of Tibetan Studies) 로더알려진곳에서는아득한시절, 티벳에서활동한인도스승들의일백여권에이르는논전을복원하기위해연구분과를상설하였고, 이들을힌두어로옮기는작업이한창진행중이며, 이를통해많은희귀산스크리트어필사본들이정밀하게편집, 출판되고있다. 지난 40년동안티벳학자들의헌신적인지원과도움에힘입어수천권의경전들이영어및여러유럽어들로번역되었다. 그러한계획을실행하는데에는학술기관들, 개별학자들, 일반공공연구소들의협력이따랐다. 하지만표준번역안의빈곤으로어휘나문체등표현상의전거 ( 典據 ) 가전무하다시피하였고이는독자들의혼선을빚게되었다. 많은경우에 원전언어 학자들과논의없이 대상언어 로번역작업을하게되면오류가발생하기마련이다. 역경불사는경전의전승과정에서지극히중요하며, 그것으로써경전의진위여부까지결정되기때문에역경은중요한요소이다. 그런데실은번역이다가아니다. 각경전은전통과함께결합되어있다. 그리고경전은반드시여러층위를뚫고들어가야할부분이있다. 지적영역이라는것은얕은층위에해당된다, 이는물론필수적이고더깊은층위로뚫고들어가는데에유용하다. 하지만이는어디까지나적합한방향으로인도될때만이그러하다. 그러므로듣고, 숙고하고, 명상하는문, 사, 수의과정은불교의많은스승들이지켜온붓다의가르침을성취하는데에있어엄히준수되어야할것들이다. 전통과한몸을이루고있는경전은정통성을갖추고있겠지만그렇지않다면정통성은유지할수없다. 그런까닭에티벳인들은확고한정통성을바탕으로하여광대한교전들을역경하는놀라운불사를수행하였다. 두번째단계는경전에관한지성적연구작업으로서, 이는무엇보다단절없이법의전승을지속가능케하는일이었다. 이런점에서티벳은매우풍부하고강력하며광범위한탐구와분석의전통을유지해왔다. 이는수많은승원들의설립에힘입은바큰데, 승원들은붓다의가르침및인도스승들의논서에자신들의주석을부가함으로써, 귀중한자료의보존과불법연구의발전에혁혁한기여를했다. 티벳불교에서는독자적작업들역시만만치않은양이었다. 수많은티벳스승들이이루셀수없이많은불교전집들의해설작업을했는바, 이는가히세계최대규모의작업량을수행한것이다. 아래표는불교의 5대주요분야에서티벳과인도스승들이수행한작업들이다.
28 세계각국의대장경역경 5대분야 수록번호 ( 데게판 ) 와주석서들 부수 티벳주석서 ( 최소 ) 반야 3786-3823 38 300 중관 3824-3980 157 500 구사 4086-4103 4042-4085 83 500 율장 4104-4149 46 300 인명 4203-4268 66 500 아래표들에는인도스승들과티벳스승들이특정논서에붙인주석들이잘나타나있다. 역경한논서 수록번호 ( 데게판 ) 와주석서들 부수 티벳주석서 ( 최소 ) 량평석 4210, 4216--- 12 500 입중론 3861, 3862, 3870 3 30-60 현관장엄론 3786-3791, 3793 21 150 중론송 3824, 3842, 3853, 3859, 3860 8 25 구사론 4089-4090--- 10 100 율경 4117, 4119-4122--- 5 50 묘음성명 ( 聲明 ) 기론 4297, 4298 2 20 잔드라성명기론경 4269, 4270, 4271, 4272, 4279 5 15 가라파경 4282, 4284, 4288 3 25 파니니성명기론경 4420 1 40 궁정시 ( 宮廷詩 ) 경 4301 1 100 세번째순서는경전의의미를깨닫는단계이다. 이는지금까지모든계획의궁극적이고도유일한목적이라하겠다. 왜냐하면마지막단계의충족에따라, 앞의두단계가근본적인역할을하지만세번째단계의성취즉깨달음의여부가앞서두단계의질적수준을좌우하기때문이다. 경전에대한역경불사가그저학문적목적에만제한된다면, 불교경전의존재에있어유일창대 ( 唯一昌大 ) 한목적을훼손하는것일게다. 따라서역경작업은반드시깨달음의성취라는동기에의해행해져야한다. 바로이점이역경의수준에커다란격차를빚어내는지점이된다. 불교의역경불사에서가장주의할것은아마번역자의자격이될것이다. 훌륭한역자에게는대상언어와원전언어에관련된능력만이아니라경전주제에관한이해와운용능력, 해당경전이유래된전통및전승에대한깊은지식과이해가있어야한다. 또한번역은해당주제의학자들이감독하는가운데수행되어야함을끝으로강조하는바이다.
佛典한글번역의문제와용어사용에관한고찰 淨宇
佛典한글번역의문제와용어사용에관한고찰 31 佛典한글번역의문제와용어사용에관한고찰 淨宇 1. 문제점 1) 방법상의문제 불교의典籍을한글로번역하는데있어서는주지하는바와같이여러가지의문제점을가지고있어번역방법이개선되어야할점이많다. 본논문에서는불전을한글로번역하는데있어서우선적으로해결해야할문제들을고찰하고, 이문제의개선방법에대하여기본적인것을제안하고자한다. 佛典을번역하는데사용되는방법들은보통직역과의역의방법이주로사용되고있으나이번역방법에는여러가지문제점이발생되고있다. 예를들면직역에서는번역하는저본이가지고있는내용의의미를옮기기보다는저본의언어만을바꾸는데중점을두는것이요. 의역에서는저본의언어를다른언어로바꾸기보다는그언어들이가지고있는의미들을옮기는것을중심으로한다. 2) 용어사용의문제佛典에사용된언어는한개의단어가여러가지의미를가지고있어한글번역상에서이것들의적절한선택이요구되고있다. 특히불전에서만사용되는전문성을가진용어들을한글로번역할경우에한글문장에적합한한글용어들을만들어야하는어려운문제가있는것이다. 예를들면번역하는사람이나름대로이해한것을한글언어로옮기는것이다. 이런경우에는불전에서만전문적으로사용된언어의의미가바르게전달되지못하는문제가발생할수있다. 불전번역에있어서이러한용어사용에관한문제는漢譯佛典에서도여러종류가발견되고있다. 한가지예를들면팔리어 bhagavant ( 산스크리트어 bhagavat ) 를번역하는데사용된언어로 衆祐, 世尊, 薄伽梵, 婆伽婆 등의용어들을혼용 1) 하고있어통일성이없다. 漢譯에서 世尊, 佛, 薄伽梵 등의번역용어사용에있어서문제로지적할수있는예를한가지더보기로한다. 漢譯불경의서두에사용되는 如是我聞一時佛 이란語句에서 佛 에해당하는원전용어는 (P.) bhagavā 이다. 2) 그러므로이용어는 婆伽婆, 薄伽梵 으로音寫해 1) 安世高譯 佛說阿難問事佛吉凶經 : 世尊為眾祐安住之特尊 ( 大正 14, 754 中 8) ; 鳩摩羅什譯 大莊嚴論經 卷第六 : 是我婆伽婆是我佛世尊 ( 大正 4, 287 下 18) ; 玄奘譯 本事經 卷第五 : 薄伽梵爾時世尊 ( 大正 17, 683 下 20-21). 2) 漢譯阿含經의예를들면 一時佛 이란語句의원전어구는 ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā (S.N. I, p.1 ; D.N. I, pp.1-3 ; A.N. I, p.2 ; M.N. I, p.1) 이다.
32 세계각국의대장경역경 야한다. 이것을 佛 이라는音寫語로표기한것은오기로볼수있다. 佛 이란용어는원전어 (P., S.) buddha 를漢譯에서音寫한 佛陀 의약어로사용되는것이다. 그러므로 一時佛 은 一時薄伽梵 3) 이라고하거나 一時世尊 4) 이라고해야한다. 佛 로표기한것은오기라할수있다. 3) 한글번역문장구성의문제佛典한글번역에있어서그방법의선택에적절성을기할수있게하는것은번역자가해결해야할중요한과제중의하나이다. 일찍이중국에서도佛典을번역하는데있어서어떻게그문장을구성할것인가에대한쟁점이표출된바가있다. 출삼장기집 호한역경음의동이기 에서는문장을꾸미는것과질박하게하는것에대하여다음과같이논하고있다. 그러나문장을 꾸미는것 이지나치면요염되고질직함이심하면野 (/ 질박, 촌스러움 ) 하게될걱정이있다. 지나치게 야하거나요염하게하는폐단은함께경전의문체를상실한다. 5) 佛典번역방법은일반적으로 直譯, 意譯, 縮譯 등의방법을사용한다. 이방법들을선택하는데있어서유의해야할문제점으로다음과같은것들을지적할수있다. 1 직역의방법을선택하는데따른문제이다. 번역하고자선정한原文에사용된언어가손상되지않도록옮기는직역방법은번역된언어의뜻을이해하기어려운문제점이있다. 2 의역의방법을선택하는경우에나타나는문제이다. 한글번역본불전을보는사람들이그의미를이해하기쉽게하려는의역방법에는대체적으로번역자의개인적견해가따르게된다. 이경우에는번역언어의사용이불전내용을해설하는형식으로되기쉽다. 이로인하여불전이가지고있는본래의의미가誤導될염려가있는것이다. 3 縮譯의방법을선택하는데따른문제이다. 번역하고자선정한불전의명칭이나번잡하고반복되는문장을축소하거나삭제하는방법이다. 이경우에필요한부분만을선택함으로서불전내용과의미가손상되는문제점이있는것이 3) 中國唐代의현장, 의정이번역한佛典에는 一時薄伽梵 으로표기하고있다. 4) 雜阿含經卷第十一에 如是我聞一時世尊 ( 大正 2, 76 下 3) 이라표기된것이있다. 5) 出三藏記集 卷第一, 胡漢譯經音義同異記 第四 : 然文過則傷艶質甚則患野野艶為弊同失經體 ( 大正 55, 5 上 5-6).