IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture - Korean Perspective KAST Research Report 2016
IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 한국과학기술한림원
집필위원장 이철호 집필부위원장 김유항 집필위원 박현진박승우정효지이숙종
요약문 연구과제명 국문 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 영 문 IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture - Korean Perspective 연구책임자성명이철호한림원소속부농수산학부 Ⅰ. 과제중요성 본연구는 IAP(InterAcademy Partnership) 의연구과제 Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture(FNSA) 의한국측자료제시를위해수행된연구로서, 한국의식량영양안보와농업발전현황을조사하고발전방향을제시하였다. - 연구의 1차년도 (2016년 7월 1일 - 12월 31일 ) 에는한국의식량영양안보와농업현황과문제점을조사하였으며, 2차년도 (2017년 1월 1일 - 6월 30일 ) 에는글로벌식량영양안보를위한한국의역할에대해집필할계획이다. Ⅱ. 현황및문제점 한국의식량영양안보와농업현황과문제점에대해아래와같이분담하여집필하였다. 1. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 ( 고려대이철호 ) 2. 한국인의영양기준과영양상태 ( 서울대정효지 ) 3. 한국의식량생산잠재력과생산현황 ( 서울대박승우 ) 4. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 ( 한국식량안보연구재단이숙종 ) 5. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 ( 고려대박현진 ) 6. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 ( 고려대이철호 ) 7. 사회구조변화와국민교육 ( 인하대김유항 ) Ⅲ. 해결방안 식량영양안보와농업발전을위한과학기술의역할은심대하며특히기후변화와신흥공업국들의폭발적인식량수요폭증에의한세계적인식량난에대응하는기술개발이시급히요청되고있다. 물과에너지관리기술, 생명공학기술의활용, 수확후관리기술에의한식량낭비저감화등이강조되고있으며, 이들신기술을받아들이는소비자의수용도와신뢰를고양하기위한교육홍보노력이요구되고있다. v
Ⅳ. 정책과제 1차년도연구보고서에제시된정책과제는아래와같다. 1. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 (1) 기후변화에적응하는작물신품종개발 - 농업생명과학기술의발전 (2) 농업생산성향상을위한재배기술, 사양관리기술 (3) 쌀을비롯한국산원재료의가공이용기술 2. 한국인의영양기준과영양상태 (1) 각영양소별인체필요량및질병과의관련성에대한과학적근거의생산 (2) 상용식품의영양소및기타성분데이터베이스구축및확대 (3) 각질환자의식생활관리를위한식생활지침의개발 (4) 개인의영양상태와연계하여관리할수있는모바일헬스케어기술 3. 한국의식량생산잠재력과생산현황 (1) 농업용수관리효율개선을위한융 복합기술의개발 (2) 농업에너지효율개선 (3) 축산분뇨의퇴비, 액비생산현장기술개발 4. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 (1) 방사선조사식품에대한국민의올바른이해를통해조사기술의활용촉진 (2) 음식쓰레기사료화및비료화를위한폐기물처리기술개발 5. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 (1) 기후변화에따른재배지변화로농작물변경에대한농업인교육및재배기술개발 (2) 정량적미생물위해평가 (QMRA) 의표준화를위한 database 마련 (3) 기후변화를가속화시키는기존의식품가공기술을대체할수있는그린가공공정기술개발 6. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 (1) 유전자변형기술에대한소비자불안감을해소하여농업생명공학의활용촉진 (2) 유전자가위 (genome editing) 등신기술개발로미래식량문제해결 7. 사회구조변화와국민교육 (1) 이농현상방지와귀농촉진 (2) 기업농도입과농업기계화 (3) 교육 ( 다문화가정교육, 식품 영양 농업관련교육, 식품의폐기 낭비방지 ) vi
SUMMARY( 영문요약문 ) 연구과제명 국문 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 영 문 IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture - Korean Perspective 연구책임자성명 Cherl-Ho Lee 한림원소속부 Ⅰ. Significance Agricultural and Fishery Sciences This report was designed to submit Korean perspective on the Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture to the IAP (Inter Academy Partnership) research project. In this first year report (Part 1, 1st July - 31 December, 2016) the status and issues of Korean food and nutrition security and agriculture were reviewed. The 2nd year research (Part 2, 1st January - 30 June, 2017) will survey the role of Korea for the global food and nutrition security. Ⅱ. Current Situation and Problems This report is composed of 7 topics written by 6 experts. 1. Global food situation and Korean status (Prof, Cherl-Ho Lee, Korea University) 2. Nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans(Prof. Hyojee Joung, Seoul Nat. Univ.) 3. Use of agricultural land and water, energy, and chemicals for sustainable crop production in Korea (Prof. Seung Woo Park, Seoul National University) 4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea (Dr. Suk Jong Rhee, KFSRF) 5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture (Prof. Hyun Jin Park, Korea Univ.) 6. The use of biotechnology and its prospect in Korea (Prof, Cherl-Ho Lee, Korea University) 7. Changes in social structure and education needs (Prof. Yoo Hang Kim, Inha University) vii
Ⅲ. Solutions The role of science and technology for food and nutrition security and agricultural development is important, and technological innovation is urgently need to combat against foreseeable world food crisis caused by the global climate change and the explosive food demand of newly industrialized countries. The water and energy management in agriculture, application of modern biotechnology and post-harvest technology for food wast and loss reduction are emphasized, and the education and communication efforts to enhance consumer acceptance on new technologies are needed. Ⅳ. Policies The policies suggested in this report are as follows: 1. Global food situation and Korean status (1) Development of new seeds(gmos) adaptable to global climate change (2) Plant cultivation technology and animal rearing skills to improve agricultural productivity (3) Development of food processing technology to enhance utilization of domestic produce including rice 2. Nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans (1) Produce scientific evidence to establish the next dietary references intakes. (2) Construct a database of nutrients and other components of common Korean foods in order to expand the application of the KDRIs. (3) Develop dietary guidelines for the prevention of individual diseases (4) Apply mobile health care technology for managing and evaluating nutrient intake. 3. Use of agricultural land and water, energy, and chemicals for sustainable crop production in Korea (1) Development of multi-disciplined, integrated technology for improving irrigation viii
efficiency (2) On-site techniques for improving the energy efficiency of greenhouse heating (3) On-site techniques to produce manure and liquefied fertilizer from livestock waste. 4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea (1) Expansion of the use of irradiation technology through proper consumer understanding. (2) Technology innovation for efficient conversion of food waste into feed and compost. 5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture (1) Education to farmers about crop cultivation techniques due to climate change (2) Database set-up for standardization of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (3) Development of green processing technologies for the climate change 6. The use of biotechnology and its prospect in Korea (1) Relieve consumers anxieties regarding GMO technology and promote the usage of agricultural biotechnology. (2) Solve food problems through the development of new technology, including genome editing. 7. Changes in social structure and education needs (1) Preventing abandonment of farmong and encouraging return to farming (2) Corporate farming and mechanization (3) Awareness education (multicultural households. education on food, nutrition and agriculture, Saving food, water and energy) ix
목차 ( 계속 ) 제1장세계의식량사정과한국의현황 3 이철호 ( 고려대학교명예교수 ) 1.1. 세계의식량사정 3 1.2. 한국의식량수급현황 6 1.2.1. 한국의식량안보지수와식량자급률 6 1.2.2. 주요식품의자급률변화추이 8 1.2.3. 주요식품의소비량변화추이 9 1.3. 한반도통일을위한식량안보정책방안 12 제2장한국인의영양상태와영양기준 17 정효지 ( 서울대학교보건대학원교수 ) 2.1. 한국인의영양상태 17 2.1.1. 한국인의식품공급량 17 2.1.2. 한국인의영양소섭취량 18 2.2. 한국인의식생활 21 2.2.1. 식사패턴의서구화 21 2.2.2. 외식및가공식품의섭취증가 21 2.3. 한국인의식생활관련건강문제 22 2.3.1. 영양부족으로인한건강문제 22 2.3.2. 영양과잉또는영양불균형으로인한건강문제 24 2.4. 한국인의건강을지키기위한영양기준 26 2.4.1. 한국인영양소섭취기준 26 2.4.2. 식사구성안과식품구성자전거 27 2.4.3. 식생활지침 27 x
목차 ( 계속 ) 제3장한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 30 박승우 ( 서울대학교지역시스템공학부교수 ) 3.1. 서론 30 3.2. 경지면적과수리답현황 30 3.2.1. 경지면적 30 3.2.2. 수리답 31 3.2.3. 밭기반정비 32 3.3 수자원현황과농업용수이용량 33 3.3.1. 강수량 33 3.3.2. 수자원현황 33 3.3.3. 농업용수원공 34 3.3.4. 용 배수로 35 3.3.5. 농업용수수요량 36 3.4 농업수자원관리의과제 37 3.4.1. 수리시설개보수 37 3.4.2. 저수지조작 38 3.4.3. 관개효율개선 38 3.4.5. 물이용효율 39 3.5. 농업에너지이용현황과과제 39 3.5.1. 개요 39 3.5.2. 벼농가 41 3.5.3. 시설과채농가 41 3.5.4. 에너지사용의문제점 42 3.5.5. 신재생에너지이용 43 3.6 비료와농약사용량과과제 44 3.6.1. 비료및농약사용량 44 3.6.2. 친환경비료 45 xi
목차 ( 계속 ) 3.6.3. 앞으로의과제 45 3.7 요약및결론 46 제4장수확후관리현황과식량낭비 49 이숙종 ( 한국식량안보연구재단선임연구원 ) 4.1. 식량의경제학 49 4.2. 한국의수확후관리실태와식량손실현황 51 4.2.1. 쌀의수확후관리기술 52 4.2.2. 과채류의수확후손실 54 4.2.3. 가공유통중의식량손실 55 4.2.4. 소비단계의음식물폐기량 55 4.3. 식량낭비저감화기술 56 4.3.1. 이온화조사기술 57 4.4. 식량낭비를줄이기위한제도적개선 59 4.4.1. 식품안전관리제도의개선 59 4.4.2. 푸드뱅크의활용 61 4.4.3. 음식폐기물감소를위한정부시책 62 제5장기후변화와한국농업의전망 66 박현진 ( 고려대학교식품공학과교수 ) 5.1. 한반도와기후변화 66 5.2. 기후변화로인한농산물생산및수확량변화 67 5.2.1. 사과 70 5.2.2. 약용작물 71 5.2.3. 곡물 - 벼 71 5.2.4. 채소 72 xii
목차 ( 계속 ) 5.3. 위협받는식품안전 73 5.4. 기후변화에대비한위생관리프로그램 74 5.5. 기후변화에따른농업경쟁력확보 75 5.6. 기후변화에따른식품산업에서의경쟁력확보 79 제6장생명공학기술의활용과전망 82 이철호 ( 고려대학교명예교수 ) 6.1. 세계의생명공학신품종재배현황 82 6.2. 국내 GM작물개발현황 84 6.2.1. 상업용 GM작물개발현황 85 6.3. 생명공학신품종의안전성평가 86 6.3.1. 생명공학신품종의환경위해성평가 87 6.3.2. 생명공학신품종의식품안전성평가 88 6.4. 생명공학기술에대한소비자인식 90 6.5. 한국농업생명공학기술의향후과제 91 제7장사회구조변화와국민교육 94 김유항 ( 인하대학교명예교수 ) 7.1. 중요성 94 7.2. 현황과문제점 94 7.2.1. 세계인구증가추세 94 7.2.2. 우리나라인구추세 95 7.2.3. 농업인구의감소및고령화 95 7.2.4. 경작지면적변화추이 96 7.2.5. 다문화가정 96 xiii
목차 ( 계속 ) 7.3. 해결방안및정책과제 96 7.3.1. 이농현상방지와귀농촉진 97 7.3.2. 기업농도입과농업기계화 97 7.3.3. 교육 98 xiv
Contents (continue) 1. Global food situation and Korean status 103 Prof. Cherl-Ho Lee (Professor Emeritus, Korea University) 1.1. Global food situation 103 1.2. The status of food demand and supply in Korea 106 1.2.1. Food security index and self-sufficiency rate of Korea 106 1.2.2. Changes in self-sufficiency rate of food items 108 1.2.3. Changes in food consumption in Korea 110 1.3. Food security policies for Korean unification 113 2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans 118 Prof. Hyojee Joung (Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National Univ.) 2.1. The nutritional status of Koreans 118 2.1.1. Food supply for Koreans 118 2.1.2. Nutrient Intakes of Koreans 120 2.2. The Dietary behaviors of Koreans 122 2.2.1. The westernization of dietary pattern 122 2.2.2. The increase of eating out and processed food intakes 123 2.3. Health issues related to diet among Koreans 124 2.3.1. Health issues related to undernourishment 124 2.3.2. Health problems from over-nutrition and nutritional imbalance125 2.4. Nutrition standards for Koreans 127 2.4.1. Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans 127 2.4.2. Food Guide and Food Balance Wheel 128 2.4.3. Dietary Guidelines for Koreans 129 xv
Contents (continue) 3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA 133 Prof. Seung-Woo Park (Inst. Green Bio Sci. & Technol., Seoul National Univ.) 3.1. INTRODUCTION 133 3.2. CULTIVATED LAND AND IRRIGATED PADDY FIELD 133 3.2.1. Cultivated Land 133 3.2.2 Irrigated Paddy Field 135 3.2.3. Upland Improvement Projects 135 3.3. WATER RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURAL WATER USAGE 136 3.3.1. Precipitation 136 3.3.2. Water Resources 137 3.3.3. Agricultural Water Sources 138 3.3.4. Irrigation and Drainage Canals 139 3.3.5. Agricultural Water Use 139 3.4. AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT 141 3.4.1. Rehabilitating Irrigation Facilities 141 3.4.2. Reservoir Operation 142 3.4.3. Improving Irrigation Efficiency 142 3.4.5. Increasing Water Use Efficiency 143 3.5. AGRICULTURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION 143 3.5.1. Overview 143 3.5.2. Paddy Farms 145 3.5.3. Greenhouse and Fruit Farms 146 3.5.4. Issues in Energy Consumption 147 3.5.5. Uses of New Renewable Energy 148 3.6. USE OF FERTILIZERS AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS 149 3.6.1. Use of Fertilizers and Agricultural Chemicals 149 xvi
Contents (continue) 3.6.2. Environment-Friendly Fertilizers 150 3.6.4. Issues in Fertilizer and Chemical Applications 151 3.7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 152 4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea 155 Dr. Sook-Jong Rhee (Senior Researcher, Korea Food Security Research Foundation) 4.1. The economics of food 155 4.2. Postharvest practices and the state of food loss in Korea 158 4.2.1. Postharvest technology of rice 159 4.2.2. Postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables 160 4.2.3. Food loss during processing and distribution 161 4.2.4. Food waste at the consumption stage 162 4.3. Technology to reduce food loss and waste 162 4.3.1. Food irradiation technology 163 4.4. System innovation for the reduction of food waste 165 4.4.1. Innovations in food safety management systems 166 4.4.2. Food Bank activity in Korea 168 4.4.3. Governmental efforts to reduce food loss and waste 169 5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture 173 Prof. Hyun Jin Park (Dept. Food Biosci. and Technol., Korea University) 5.1. Climate change in Korea 173 5.2. Impacts of climate change on agricultural production and crop yield 174 5.2.1. Apple 178 5.2.2. Medicinal crops 179 xvii
Contents (continue) 5.2.3. Grain rice 180 5.2.4. Vegetables 181 5.3. Threatened food safety 182 5.4. Sanitation and climate change 184 5.5. Enhancement of Agricultural Competitiveness and Climate Change 185 5.6. Reinforcement of Industrial competitiveness and climate change 188 6. Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea 193 Prof. Cherl-Ho Lee (Professor Emeritus, Korea University) 6.1. Current status of GMO cultivation in the world 194 6.2. Current status of GM crop development in Korea 196 6.2.1. Current status of development for commercial GM crops 196 6.3. Safety evaluation of new biotech crops 198 6.3.1. Evaluation of environmental risk of new biotech crops 198 6.3.2. Evaluation of food safety in new biotech crops 200 6.4. Consumers perceptions on biotech crops and GM foods 202 6.5. Future assignment of agricultural biotechnology in Korea 204 7. Change in Social Structure and Awareness Education 207 Prof. Yoo Hang Kim (Professor Emeritus, Inha University) 7.1. Introduction 207 7.2. Present Situation and Problems 208 7.2.1. World Population 208 7.2.2. Population of Korea 208 7.2.3. Decrease in Rural Population and Aging 209 xviii
Contents (continue) 7.2.4. Arable Land 209 7.2.5. Multicultural Families 210 7.3. Solutions and Policy Recommendations 210 7.3.1. Preventing Abandonment of Farming and Encouraging Return to Farming 210 7.3.2. Corporate Farming and Mechanization 211 7.3.3. Awareness Education 212 xix
IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 국문보고서
1 장 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 1.1. 세계의식량사정 제2차세계대전이후에나타난세계적인기아현상은 1960-70년대에일어난녹색혁명으로크게개선되었으나 WTO 경제체제하의세계적인무역자유화과정에서가난한나라에서생산된농산물들이부유한국가들의무절제한소비를충족시키는데소진되면서부익부빈익빈의현상이크게심화되고있다. 아프리카나중남미의가난한나라에서굶주려가면서커피원두를생산해세계시장에팔고있고, 동남아의가난한농민들이과실과야자수와설탕을재배하여선진국에수출하는것이대표적인예이다. 반면미국, 캐나다, 호주와같은대규모영농으로값싸게생산된외국의농산물이아무런무역장벽없이쏟아져들어오면서약소국들은농업인프라가붕괴되어절대식량부족국가로전락하고있다. 이들은세계곡물시장에그대로노출되어곡물가격이오르면기아와사회불안을겪는신세가되었다. 2007/08년의세계곡물파동으로 30여개국가에서식량폭동이일어나고일부국가의정권이붕괴된사실이이를잘반영하고있다. ( 이철호, 2012) FAO 설립 50주년을기념하여 1996년 11월로마에서열린세계식량정상회담 (World Food Summit) 에서개발도상국의식량부족과기아, 식량수급불균형, 세계식량안보 (World Food Security) 등을주제로진지한논의가이루어졌다. 이회담은개최배경에서 모든사람은신체적 정신적능력을발휘하기위해굶주림과영양실조에서해방되어야한다는불가침의권리를가진다. 고선언하였다 (FAO, 1996). 식량안보를바라보는시각은각나라와지역의형편에따라다양하다. 기아와영양부족해결을위한세계적식량안보, 식량의안정적공급을위한국가적식량안보, 소득계층에따른식량과영양의안정적인공급에초점을둔소비자차원의식량안보등다양한관점이존재한다. FAO는식량안보의가측성을위해식량의가용성 (availability), 접근성 (accessibility), 활용성 (utilization) 및안정성 (stability) 이라는 4가지지표를제시하고있다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 3
세계의식량생산량은수요량에맞추어꾸준히증가하고있다 ( 이철호외, 2015). ( 그림 1-1) 세계전체곡물생산량은콩을포함하면연간약 25억톤 (2007-2010년평균 ) 으로추산되며이것은 70억인구를먹이기에충분한양이다 ( 약 1kg 곡물 / 인 / 일 ). 그러나상당부분이가축사료용으로사용되고최근에는바이오연료생산원료로일부사용되면서굶주리는인구가늘고있다. 유엔식량농업기구 (FAO) 의발표에의하면 2009년세계영양부족인구는 10억을넘었으며그후다소완화되어최근에는 8.2억명으로추산되고있다.(FAO, 2015) 2000년대에들어와서세계곡물재고량은급격히감소하여 FAO가권장하는최소안전재고수준인 18% 에접근하고있다. 세계곡물가격은 7-8년주기로오는세계적인흉작과뒤이은풍작으로등락을거듭하면서도안정적인가격을유지하였으나최근에는바이오연료의생산으로말미암아남아도는곡물이없는시대가됨으로서곡물가격이높게유지되며생산자 ( 또는공급자 ) 가가격을마음대로결정하는시대가당분간계속될것으로보인다. [ 그림 1-1] 세계곡물생산량, 수요량, 재고량변화추이 세계식량사정의미래를어둡게하는가장큰요인은중진국들 ( 특히중국, 인도, 브라질등 ) 의경제성장에의한동물성식품의수요폭등과지구온난화에의한식량생산능력의감소현상이다. 세계인구의 1/3을차지하는중국과인도사람들이선진국수준으로우유와육류를먹기시작하면세계시장에나오는사료곡물을싹쓸이해도모자란다고한다. 실제로중국은 2000년콩수입을허용하면서세계최대콩수입국이되었 4 한국과학기술한림원
1 장. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 다. 2015년중국의콩수입량은 5천만톤을넘어세계전체콩거래물량 ( 약 8천만톤 ) 의 64% 를수입했다. 이에따라한국과같은작은시장 ( 연간콩 120만톤수입 ) 은돈이있어도사올식량이없는상황이될수있다. 1995년미국의레스터브라운 (Lester R. Brown) 이제기한 누가중국인을먹여살릴것인가? (Who Will Feed China?) 가실제현실로나타나고있다. 지구온난화가식량생산에미치는영향을예측한자료에의하면 ( 표 1-1), 앞으로세계식량생산은크게증가되지않을것으로전망된다. 북반구에위치한러시아와캐나다등선진국들의식량생산은지구온난화로식량생산이다소 (2.7-9.0%) 증가하겠지만, 남반구에있는대부분의개발도상국식량생산은감소할것으로예측된다. 특히남아시아의식량생산은 18.2-22.1% 감소할것으로전망되어세계전체적으로 2080년에는 0.6-0.9% 감소가예상된다. 이기간중세계인구는백억명이넘을것이며, 식량수요는지금보다 1.5배-2배늘어날것으로예상된다. 앞으로의세계식량위기를우려하는이유가여기에있다. < 표 1-1> 지구온난화에의한식량생산량변화예측 1990-2080 (% change) World -0.6 to 0.9 Developed countries 2.7 to 9.0 Developing countries -3.3 to 7.2 Southeast Asia -2.5 to 7.8 South Asia -18.2 to 22.1 Sub-Saharan Africa -3.9 to 7.5 Latin America 5.2 to 12.5 Source : Adapted from Tubiello and Fischer, 2007. 이러한현실에대해세계과학계는식량생산을늘이기위한기술개발에역점을두고있다. 현재의과학기술로가장가능성이있는식량증산기술은생명공학에의한신품종개발이다.(Godfray et al. 2010) 유전자재조합기술에의한해충저항성및제초제저항성신품종들에의해세계식량생산은획기적으로증가하였으며, 가뭄저항성, 염해저항성신품종들이농업생명공학에의해개발되고있다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 5
1.2. 한국의식량수급현황 1.2.1. 한국의식량안보지수와식량자급률 한국의식량안보지수는비교적높은편이다. 그림 1-2에보이는것과같이한국의 2015년도식량안보지수는 74.8로세계 26위이며, 알본 (77.4) 보다조금낮고중국 (64.2) 보다많이높다. 이것은한국은높은경제력으로모자라는식량을무제한수입할수있기때문이며국민이느끼는식량의풍족함을반영하고있다. 그러나식량자급률을보면식량안보상의취약성을감지할수있다. 1980년대 50% 를상회하던한국의곡물자급률은급격히하락하여세계무역기구 (WTO) 가창설된 1995년에는 30% 로낮아졌다. 이것은경제성장으로국민의동물성식품수요가폭증하였고이에부응하여축산장려정책을추진하면서사료곡물의수입이급격히늘어났기때문이다. WTO 이후에도곡물자급률은계속떨어져 2015년에는 24% 를기록하고있다. 사료용을제외한국내농산물소비량대비국내생산량 ( 식량자급률또는식량에너지자급률 ) 은 45% 수준으로추산되고있다. [ 그림 1-2] 한국의식량안보지수 (2015) 와식량자급률변화추이 6 한국과학기술한림원
1 장. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 1970년국내곡물총생산량은 700만톤, 수입량은 300만톤으로약 1,000만톤의곡물이공급되었으나, 이후 WTO가출범한 1995년까지곡물수입량이직선적으로증가하여연간 1,800만톤에달했으며국내생산량은 500만톤수준으로떨어졌다 ( 그림 1-3). 국내에서생산되는곡물은쌀이대부분이며 ( 약 80%), 수입곡물의대부분이가축사료로사용되고있으며 900만톤수입되는옥수수의 78%, 330만톤수입되는밀의 35% 가사료용이다 (2009년기준 ). 공급영양소별자급률변화를추산한결과를보면공급에너지는 1970년의 79.5% 에서 2008년 48.3% 로하락하였으며, 공급단백질자급률은같은기간 80.1% 에서 49.4% 로, 공급지방자급률은 77.2% 에서 22.6% 로크게낮아졌다. 특히한국은유지자원의부족으로팜유, 우지, 돈지등의해외의존도가크다.( 이철호외, 2012) ( 이철호외, 2014) [ 그림 1-3] 한국의총곡물생산및공급량의변화추이 한국의식량자급률이이와같이낮은이유는산업화와도시화에의한농지의계속적인감소와식량생산을늘리려는정책의지의부족에주로기인한다. 1980년 215만ha이던전체농지면적이 2000년에는 189만ha로감소하였고 2015년에는 167만 9000ha로감소했다. ( 정부의 2020년곡물자급률목표치 32% 달성에필요한최소면적은 175만 2000ha) 최근 3년간연평균 1만7000ha씩줄어들었으며농지전용비율은 0.6% 로일본의 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 7
0.2% 에비하여 3배가높다. ( 국회입법조사처, 2016년 ) 쌀생산을위한논경지면적은 2015년도 90만 8000ha이며논경지면적감소가밭면적감소보다높다. 이것은쌀의소비량이급속히감소하여과잉생산이문제가되면서쌀생산억제정책을펴기때문이다. 식량자급률이 50% 이하이고곡물자급률이 24% 라고하는것은일단유사시한반도에곡물을실은화물선이정박할수없는상황이되면 2개월이내에국민의절반이굶주림에처하게됨을의미한다. 많은사람들이일본도우리나라처럼식량자급률이낮으니크게걱정할필요가없다고생각한다. 그러나일본은오래전부터해외곡물유통라인확보를위한노력을통해충분한해외곡물유통라인을소유하고있다. 우리나라는일부곡물을일본곡물상을통해수입하고있다. 그리고일본정부는해외농장개발에도장기적인지원육성계획을시행해브라질의콩재배농장을비롯한많은해외농장을성공적으로운영하고있다. 그결과일본은식량자주율 (food sovereignty rate) 이 100% 가넘는나라이다. 우리나라는식량자급률과식량자주율이같은나라이다. 식량의자주권을갖기어려운나라인것이다. 1.2.2. 주요식품의자급률변화추이 1970년대중반부터육류와우유류에대한수요가늘면서한국의사료곡물수입이증가하기시작하여 1980년도에는전체곡물자급률이 56% 로급감하였다. 80년중반에시작하여 1994년까지계속된우루과이협상기간중유럽과일본등은앞으로전개될농산물무역자유화에대비하여식량자급률을높이는데힘을쓴결과세계무역기구 (WTO) 가창설되었을때영국, 독일등유럽의전통적인곡물수입국들이자급을달성했으며, 일본은곡물자급률 30% 를필사적으로지켜냈다. 그러나한국은그기간동안아무런대책없이곡물자급률 50% 대에서 29.1% 로하락하고말았으며, 계속해서 2015년 24% 로까지떨어졌다. 쌀의자급은이루었으나밀과옥수수는거의전량수입하게되었다.( 표 1-2) 1980년도에 35% 자급하던콩도 WTO 이후자급률이 10% 이하로떨어졌으며 2000년에는 7% 이하로떨어졌다. 논콩수매제도를실시하였던 2006년을전후하여 13% 대로올라갔으나수매제도가폐지되자자급률은다시 10% 이하로떨어졌다. 채소와과실의자급률은 WTO 이후지속적으로감소하여 90% 이하로내려갔다. 우유와육류의자급률도 WTO 이후크게떨어져 2013년도우유류의자급률은 58.6% 로떨어졌다. 이들 8 한국과학기술한림원
1 장. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 품목들은한 칠레, 한 EU, 한 미, 한 중 FTA 등양자간자유무역협정으로더크게감소하고있다. < 표 1-2> 주요식품품목별자급률추이 구분 1970 1980 1990 1995 2000 2006 2009 2013 곡물 ( 전체 ) 80.5 56.0 43.8 30.0 30.8 27.6 30.2 23.0 곡물 ( 사료제외 ) 86.2 69.6 70.3 55.7 55.6 51.3 57.0 쌀 93.1 95.1 108.3 91.1 102.9 95.2 101.1 89.2 밀 15.4 4.8 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 콩 86.1 35.1 20.1 9.9 6.8 13.6 9.8 9.7 채소 100.2 100.2 98.9 99.2 97.7 92.2 92.6 89.8 과실 100.2 98.6 102.5 93.2 88.7 82.6 89.5 78.7 우유 - 109.7 92.8 93.3 81.2 72.4 70.5 58.6 육류 100.0 97.8 92.9 89.2 83.9 78.7 77.5 79.5 계란 99.2 100.0 100.0 99.9 100.0 99.4 99.8 99.7 주 : 1) 쌀, 밀, 콩은사료용포함한전체자급률기준. 2) 채소, 과실, 우유, 계란은식품수급표기준. 자료 : 농림부, 농림업주요통계, 2007, 한국농촌경제연구원, 2014 식품수급표, 2014. 1.2.3. 주요식품의소비량변화추이표 1-3은주요곡물의소비량변화추이를보여주고있다. 주곡인쌀의소비는 1980 년의 1인당년 132 kg 소비에서 2014년 65.1 kg으로 1/2 수준으로감소하였다. 이것은쌀이외의다양한식품특히육류와유제품, 면류 ( 라면 ), 빵등서양식식품소비가급증한데기인한다. 전통적으로쌀의보조식량으로사용되던보리의소비는 1970년 1인당년 37 kg에서거의자취를감추었으며, 밀은 26 kg에서 2014년 31.7 kg으로 22% 증가하였다. 밀은연간 370만톤, 옥수수는연간 1000만톤수준수입되고있으나국내생산은미미하여 ( 자급률 1% 이하 ) 전량수입에의존하고있다. 콩은연간 120만톤정도수입되고있으며대부분착유용과사료용으로쓰이고있으며, 국산콩은전량식용으로사용되는데식용콩수요 ( 년 40만톤 ) 의 30% 에불과하다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 9
< 표 1-3> 주요곡물의소비량 (kg/person/year) 변화추이와자급률 1970 1980 2014 Import(2014) (10,000M/T) Self-sufficiency (%) Rice 136 132 65.1 410 95.7 Barley 37 14 1.3 2341) 24.8 Wheat 26 29 31.7 377 0.7 Corn 1 3 3.5 1024 0.8 Soybean 5 8 8.1 128 11.3 Source; Main Statistics of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries(2015) 1); Food Balance Sheet(2013) 식품산업이비약적으로성장한 1980년이후 5년동안한국인의식생활은크게변하여일인당 1일동물성식품섭취량이 98g에서 183g으로 5년동안거의 2배로증가하였다. 특히육류가 79g에서 119g으로, 우유류가 10g에서 43g으로크게증가하였다. 동물성식품의소비증가는그이후에도꾸준히계속되어 1995년에는 230g, 2005년도에는 279g으로계속증가하였다. 한국인의평균식품섭취량도계속해서늘고있는데 1980년도에하루에 1인당약 1kg의음식을섭취하였는데 2005년에는 1.3kg을먹어평균섭취량이 25년간 30% 증가한것으로추산된다. 폭증하는동물성식품의수요를충족하기위해국내사양가축의수는폭발적으로늘었으며이들의사육은주로수입곡물에의존했다. 표 1-4는국내사양가축수의변화를보여주고있다. 1970년 24,000 두이던젓소는 2014년 43만두로 17배늘었으며, 같은기간한우는 128만두에서 275만두로, 돼지는 112만두에서 1,000만두로, 닭은 2,363만수에서 1억5,641만수로증가했다 ( 이철호외, 2014). 10 한국과학기술한림원
1 장. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 < 표 1-4> 국내사양가축수의변화 ( 단위 : 천마리 ) 연도 한 ( 육우 ) 젖소 돼지 닭 1970 1,286 24 1,126 23,633 1980 1,361 180 1,784 40,130 1990 1,622 504 4,528 74,463 2000 1,590 544 8,214 102,547 2010 2,922 430 9,881 149,200 2014 2,759 431 10,090 156,410 ( 자료 : 통계청, 가축동향조사결과, 2016) 수산물은한국인의단백질공급량의약 20% 를담당하고있는중요한식량자원이다. 한국의수산물소비량은생활수준향상과웰빙식품선호에따라매년증가하여 1995년 321만 5천톤에서 2009년에는 407만톤에이르렀지만, 국내생산량은 318만 2천톤으로소비량에미치지못하고있다 ( 표 1-5). 이에따라우리나라는중국, 일본, 러시아, 베트남, 미국등에서매년 2백만톤이상의수산물을수입하고있다. 우리나라 1인당 1일수산물소비량은 1995년 16.4g에서 2009년에는 16.5g으로증가추세에있다 ( 이철호, 2012). 공급 수요 < 표 1-5> 한국의수산물수급현황 ( 생중량기준 ) ( 단위 : 천톤 ) 구분 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 생산 3,348 2,545 2,714 3,032 3,275 3,360 3,182 수입 948 1,420 2,557 2,646 2,604 2,135 2,186 전년재고 460 582 531 512 575 618 567 합계 4,756 4,547 5,802 6,190 6,454 6,113 5,935 국내소비 3,215 2,699 4,169 4,568 4,625 4,280 4,071 수출 1,170 1,338 1,121 1,047 1,211 1,266 1,336 차년이월 371 510 512 575 618 567 528 자료 : 농림수산식품부수산정책과 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 11
한국인의평균 1일식품섭취량은 1.3kg으로조사되고있으며이중 20% 인 270g이육류, 우유류, 어류, 계란류등동물성식품이다. 식품에너지섭취량은 2000kcal 수준이나그구성비를보면탄수화물 65%, 단백질 15%, 지방 20% 수준으로동물성식품에의한지방의섭취가크게늘었다. 과식과영양과잉으로인한비만인구수의증가 (33%), 특히어린이비만이사회문제가되고있으며, 암, 당뇨병, 고혈압, 심장질환등대사증후군성인병이크게만연되어있다. 결국한국인의식사행태는비경제적이고고비용의동물성식품을과다섭취하고많은양의음식물을버리는낭비적구조로변화해감으로서한국의식량사정을악화시키고더나아가국민건강의저하를불러오고있다. 한국은냉전체제의유산으로세계에서유일하게분단국가로남아있는나라이다. 북한정권의폐쇄적이고독재공포정치로인해한반도의반쪽은가난과굶주림으로비참한상황에처해있다. 이러한상황을개선하기위해통일은필연적으로일어나야하는사건이다. 한국정부가통일을가장시급한국가아젠다로채택하고있는이유이다. 한반도의식량문제는통일을위해가장우선적으로준비되어야하는과제이다. 1.3. 한반도통일을위한식량안보정책방안 한국식량안보연구재단은한반도통일을위한식량안보정책개발을위해 한반도통일과식량안보 ( 식안연, 2012) 와 선진국의조건식량자급 ( 식안연, 2014) 을출판한바있으며, 이들연구에서다음과같은정책방안을제시하였다. (1) 남한의쌀생산목표량상향조정통일이되면한반도 7천만인구를먹이기위한쌀의공급은주로남한에서생산되어야한다. 북한은산지가많아논면적이적기때문에남한에서대부분의쌀이생산되어야하는데현재남한의쌀이남아돈다고쌀생산을줄이면통일이후의쌀자급이어려워진다. 따라서현재의연간 400만톤수준의쌀생산능력을상향조정하여 480만톤수준으로올리고이를위한논면적확보에최선의노력을경주해야한다. 연간과잉생산되는 80만톤의쌀은아래의통일미비축제도와저소득영세민쌀무상지원제도에사용될수있다. 12 한국과학기술한림원
1 장. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 (2) 통일을대비한쌀 120만톤비축제도법제화급격한통일이발생할경우한반도에부족되는쌀의양은 150만톤수준으로예측되므로매년 60만톤의쌀을 2년간보관하였다가쌀가공산업으로방출하는제도를법제화하여통일을대비하여야한다. 이것은북한주민에게보여줄수있는가장강력한통일메시지가될것이며한반도신뢰프로세스의기초가된다. 세계무역기구 (WTO) 의무수입량연 40만톤전량과추가로국산쌀 20만톤을비축하면된다. 이를위한예산은연 4,844억원으로추산 (2013년기준 ) 되며, 외교통일예산의 11.8% 에해당한다. (3) 남한의저소득영세민복지향상을위한쌀무상지원제도실시통일후북한주민에게비축양곡을즉시지원하기위한법적근거를만들기위해남한에서먼저저소득영세민 ( 기초생활수급자와차상위계층, 전체국민의 7%) 에게매월 1 인당 10kg의쌀또는그가공품을구매할수있는쿠폰을무상지원하는제도를실시한다. 이법에의해통일후남한의저소득층에해당되는북한주민은이혜택을자동적으로받을수있다. 이법으로현재남한에서추가로발생할수있는쌀소비량은 17 만5천톤으로추산된다. 여기에필요한예산은연 8,106억원 (2013년) 으로추산되며보건복지예산의 0.8% 에해당하는금액이다. (4) 식용콩의자급을위한계획수립한국인의전통식단은기본적으로쌀밥과콩반찬 ( 콩나물, 두부, 된장찌개등 ) 으로구성되어있어쌀과콩의자급이필수적이나쌀의자급노력에비해콩의자급생산노력은부진하였다. 이에따라 1990년 60% 수준이던식용콩자급률이현재 30% 이하로감소하였다. 이것은국영무역으로콩가공산업에공급되는저율관세할당 (TRQ) 콩가격이 kg당 1,020원인데반해국산콩은 5,000원대이므로가격경쟁이되지않기때문이다. 따라서국영무역으로공급되는 TRQ 콩가격을올리거나, TRQ 공급물량과동량의국산콩수매를의무화하는제도를실시해야한다. 이렇게하면국산콩의자급률을 50% 이상으로올릴수있다. 장기적으로는통일이후북한의옥수수밭을콩밭으로전환하면한반도의식용콩완전자급이가능하다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 13
(5) 유럽식축산업허가제도입남한의사료곡물자급률은 2% 수준으로거의전량수입에의존하고있으며이것이남한의곡물자급률을 25% 수준으로낮추는주요인이다. 반면유럽은기본적으로자기농토에서사료작물을재배하여자급하고가축분뇨를전량자기농지에환원하는축산시스템을유지하고있다. 이를위하여유럽은농지면적에따라가축사육두수를정해주는축산업허가제를철저히시행하고있다. 우리도식량자급률을높이고쾌적한농촌환경을만들기위해자기농토에서최소한 10-20% 의사료생산을의무화하는축산업허가제를실시해야한다. 이러한축산업관리제도를남한에서먼저시작해야통일후북한의산지를이용한계획목축으로아름다운한반도를조성할수있다. (6) 남북한공동어로합작및주변국들과의어업협정조율수산물은우리국민의단백질급원의약 20% 를차지하는중요한식량자원이며생산량확대를위한노력이필요한분야이다. 수산물생산향상을위한어획기술의개발, 양식기술의발전, 어선및자재개발에투자를늘려야한다. 특히공해상에서의남북한공동어로조업의활성화가필요하다. 통일이후북한의어로기술과양식기술의협력방안이마련되어야하며, 특히북한이주변국들과맺은각종어업협정을미리파악하고통일후조율할수있는계획수립이필요하다. (7) 비상시식량확보를위한식품산업의육성식품산업은전체식량수요의 50% 이상을공급하는식량공급의주체로서그중요성이점차증대되고있다. 우리나라식품산업의기술수준은세계일류수준에도달해있으며해외시장확장에매진하고있다. 이러한식품산업을비상시식량공급의첨병이되도록정책적인지원육성계획이필요하다. 현재남한의가공식품생산능력은평균가동률 40% 수준에서국내수요를충족하고있으며통일후북한의가공식품수요를감당하기에충분한생상능력을가지고있다. 통일후식품산업의발전전략과물류공급계획등이사전에마련되어야한다. 14 한국과학기술한림원
1 장. 세계의식량사정과한국의현황 < 문제해결에필요한과학기술 > (1) 기후변화에적응하는작물신품종개발 - 농업생명과학기술의발전 (2) 농업생산성향상을위한재배기술, 사양관리기술 (3) 쌀을비롯한국산원재료의가공이용기술 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 15
참고문헌국회입법조사처, 경지면적과농지전용현황및과제, 지표로보는이슈제50호, (2016) 이철호, 식량전쟁, 도서출판식안연 (2012) 이철호, 이숙종, 글로벌식량위기와한국의대응방안, 식품과학과산업, 44(3), 20-37, (2011) 이철호, 문헌팔, 김용택, 김세권, 박태균, 권익부, 한반도통일과식량안보, 도서출판식안연 (2012) 이철호, 문헌팔, 김용택, 이숙종, 이꽃임, 선진국의조건식량자급, 도서출판식안연 (2014) 이철호, 유장렬, 문헌팔, 박현진, 곽상수, 이향기, 박수철, 김주곤, 이숙종, 생명공학수용을통한한국농업혁신정책방안, 한림연구보고서 101, 한국과학기술한림원 (2015) FAO. Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action, Rome (1996) FAO, The state of food insecurity in the world (2009, 2015) Godfray, H.C.J. et,al., Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people, Science, vol.327, 812-818 (2010) Tubiello, F.N. and Fischer, G., Reducing climate change impacts on agriculture: Global and regional effects of mitigation, 2000-2080, Technological Forecasting and Social Change 74, 1030-1056 (2007) 16 한국과학기술한림원
2 장 한국인의영양상태와영양기준 눈부신경제발전으로우리나라의생활수준은크게향상되었다. 가족구조의다양화및여성의사회활동증가로인해식생활의사회화가촉진되었으며, 다방면에서국제교류가진전되어이용가능한식품의종류와양이다양해졌다. 식품의해외의존도가높아지고, 식생활의서구화가급속히진행되면서암, 당뇨병, 고혈압, 대사증후군등의만성질환이크게증가하고있어서이에따른사회경제적부담역시크게증가하고있다. 장기적으로국민들의건강과안정적인식품수급을계획하기위해서는현재한국인의식생활현황과식생활과관련된건강문제를파악할필요가있다. 이에, 본장에서는한국인의식품공급현황, 영양문제의현황및추세, 그리고식생활과관련된건강문제를살펴보고, 아울러질병을예방하고관리하기위해활용하고있는영양소섭취기준과식생활지침을소개한다. 2.1. 한국인의영양상태 2.1.1. 한국인의식품공급량 한국농촌경제연구원의 식품수급표 에따르면지난약 40년동안한국인의 1인 1일당식품군별공급량에큰변화가있었다 ( 표 2-1). 곡류와서류의공급량은꾸준히감소한반면, 그외식품군의공급량은지속적으로증가하였다. 1970년과비교하여 2014년공급량이가장많이증가한식품군은견과류 (54.0배), 우유류 (34.7배), 유지류 (14.1배), 기타곡류 (10.9배), 종실류 (10.5배), 육류 (6.2배), 과실류 (5.0배) 등이었다. 2014년현재가장많이공급되고있는식품군은채소류 (421.9 g), 곡류 (373.7 g), 우유류 (170.1 g), 육류 (142.0 g), 과실류 (137.4 g), 어패류 (114.8 g) 순이었다. 곡류에서쌀이차지하는비중이감소하였고, 다양한식물성식품들이공급되고있으며, 우유류, 육류등의동물성식품의공급량은두드러지게증가하였다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 17
< 표 2-1> 한국인의 1인 1일당식품군별공급량변화추이 ( 단위 : g) 식품군 연도 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2014 곡류 534.0 505.5 480.7 457.1 397.5 373.7 쌀 357.4 363.0 330.9 268.1 223.2 206.4 밀가루 68.7 80.3 81.4 99.0 91.3 87.6 보리 100.8 38.4 6.7 4.9 3.7 3.6 기타 7.0 23.9 61.8 85.0 79.3 76.1 서류 153.4 58.8 30.2 32.2 37.9 34.3 설탕류 17.1 28.1 42.0 48.9 62.3 66.4 두류 18.3 26.5 28.1 29.4 28.5 28.3 견과류 0.1 1.2 1.3 4.1 4.1 5.4 종실류 0.2 1.1 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.1 채소류 164.2 329.5 363.3 454.6 362.1 421.9 과실류 27.5 44.4 79.3 111.4 121.0 137.4 육류 22.8 37.9 64.6 102.8 119.3 142.0 계란류 8.7 16.0 21.6 23.5 27.1 30.6 우유류 4.9 29.5 87.1 135.0 156.1 170.1 어패류 40.2 61.5 83.6 84.1 100.1 114.8 해조류 7.2 12.2 15.5 16.6 40.2 46.6 유지류 4.0 13.8 39.1 43.6 55.0 56.4 ( 한국농촌경제연구원, 1994; 한국농촌경제연구원, 2015) 2.1.2. 한국인의영양소섭취량지난 40년간식품환경이변화하면서한국인의영양소섭취양상도지속적인변화를겪었다 ( 표 2-2). 보건복지부의 국민건강통계 에따르면, 1970년이후탄수화물의섭취량은지속적으로감소하였고, 지방의섭취량은꾸준히증가하였다. 무기질및비타민의경우에는나트륨과니아신을제외하고는대체로과거에비해증가하는추세를보이고있다. 18 한국과학기술한림원
2 장. 한국인의영양상태와영양기준 < 표 2-2> 한국인의 1 인 1 일당영양소별섭취량변화추이 영양소 연도 1970 1980 1990 1998 2008 2014 에너지 (kcal) 2,150 2,052 1,868 1,934 1,868 2,075 단백질 (g) 64.6 67.2 78.9 73.2 66.7 72.7 지방 (g) 17.2 21.8 28.9 40.1 39.3 49.7 탄수화물 (g) 434 396 316 315.5 297.7 308.0 칼슘 (mg) 466 598 517 500.5 488.5 493.1 인 (mg) - - - 1,060.6 1,116.7 1,091.6 나트륨 (mg) - - - 4581.6 4,607.6 3,874.1 칼륨 (mg) - - - 2,522.4 2,830.2 2,940.0 철 (mg) 11.2 13.5 22.7 12.5 13.3 16.9 비타민 A( μgre) 1) 939 1,688 1,662 609.5 770.8 757.9 티아민 (mg) 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 2.0 리보플라빈 (mg) 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 니아신 (mg) 16.3 19.1 21.6 15.5 15.1 16.3 비타민 C(mg) 82.9 87.9 81.2 123.7 99.7 96.1 1) 1990년까지는 IU단위사용 ( 보건복지부, 2015a) ( 보건복지부, 2015a) [ 그림 2-1] 한국인의다량영양소에너지섭취비율추이 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 19
한국인이섭취하고있는다량영양소의에너지기여율은그림 2-1과같다. 2014년기준으로한국인은탄수화물로부터 63.8%, 지방으로부터 21.6%, 단백질로부터 14.6% 의에너지를섭취하고있다. 1970년대탄수화물 80.8%, 지방 7.2%, 단백질 12.0% 를차지하던것과비교하면상당한변화라할수있다. 그럼에도불구하고, 아직한국인은곡류위주의식사를하고있어서대부분의에너지를탄수화물로부터얻고있음을알수있다. 일부미량영양소의경우에영양소섭취기준에미치지못하는섭취자의비율이높게나타났다 ( 표 2-3). 칼슘의경우남자 68.3% 와여자 73.9% 가평균필요량미만을섭취하고있었고, 비타민 A와비타민 C, 리보플라빈도평균필요량미만을섭취하는비율이높았다. 국민건강영양조사 2010-2011에서혈중비타민 D로측정한비타민 D의결핍률은남자 65.9%, 여자 77.7% 에달한다 ( 정인경, 2013). 한편, 에너지와지방을과도하게섭취하는비율이여자 (6.8%) 에비해남자 (11.2%) 에서높게나타났다. 특히, 19-29세, 30-49세연령층은각각 10.9%, 11.6% 로가장높았다 ( 그림 2-2). 나트륨의경우에는목표섭취량인 2000 mg을초과하여섭취하는성인 (19-64 세 ) 이 80% 를넘는높은비율을보였다 ( 보건복지부, 2015b). < 표 2-3> 한국인의영양소별영양섭취기준미만 1) 섭취자분율 영양소 영양섭취기준미만섭취자 (%) 남자여자 단백질 10.9 18.1 칼슘 68.3 73.9 인 9.5 17.9 철 10.3 27.4 비타민 A 42.2 45.4 티아민6.1 11.5 리보플라빈 38.2 40.7 니아신 23.5 35.9 비타민 C 58.0 56.0 1) 2010 한국인영양섭취기준의평균필요량 ( 보건복지부, 2015a) [ 그림 2-2] 한국인의에너지및지방과잉섭취자 1) 분율 1) 에너지섭취량이필요추정량의 125% 이상이면서, 지방섭취량이에너지적정비율을초과한대상자 ( 보건복지부, 2015a) 20 한국과학기술한림원
2 장. 한국인의영양상태와영양기준 2.2. 한국인의식생활 2.2.1. 식사패턴의서구화 1970년대이후급속한경제성장과함께서구식생활양식이확산되면서, 식생활역시밥, 국, 김치를위주로한전통식에서빵, 면류, 육류등의식품으로구성된서구식으로변하고있다. 1998-2005년국민건강영양조사자료를이용하여식사패턴을분석한결과, 한국성인의식사패턴은흰쌀밥, 콩류, 채소류, 김치, 해조류의섭취가높은 전통식패턴 과기타곡류, 면류, 빵류, 피자및햄버거, 감자류, 견과류, 과일류, 육류, 어류, 우유, 음료류등의섭취가높은 혼합식패턴 으로분류되었다 ( 강민지등, 2011). 20대연령층에서는혼합식패턴이 1998년 47.4% 에서 2005년 65.6% 로증가하였지만, 50-64세와 65세이상에서는전통식패턴 (50-64세: 62.2%, 65세이상 : 77.6%) 이혼합식패턴 (50-64세: 37.8%, 65세이상 : 22.4%) 보다높은비율을나타냈다. 즉, 한국인의밥상은여전히밥과김치중심이지만, 일부연령층에서는빵류, 면류, 육류의선호도가높아지는등식생활이다변화되고있다. 2.2.2. 외식및가공식품의섭취증가식품이국제적으로유통되고, 대상품목과규모가확대되면서, 가공식품및수입식품의섭취량이증가하고있다. 한국농수산식품유통공사의 가공식품소비량및소비행태조사 에따르면, 2015년가공식품의구입액은총가구당식품구입액의 38.0% 를차지하고있다. 가공식품구매를위한월평균지출액은 음료류 가 13,375원으로가장많았고, 이어서 과자 / 빙과류 (12,548원), 유제품 (10,827원), 대용식 (9,820원), 반찬류 (8,797원) 순이었다 ( 그림 2-3)( 한국농수산식품유통공사, 2015). 한편, 편리하고간편한음식을선호하는경향이확산되고, 맞벌이가구및 1인가구가늘어남에따라외식도크게확대되었다 ( 정효지등, 2013). 2014년국민건강영양조사에의하면하루에 1회이상외식을하는비율이 32.4% 로, 한국인의 3명중 1명은하루에한번이상외식을하는상황인만큼 ( 그림 2-4), 국민들의식생활이외식에크게의존하고있다고할수있다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 21
[ 그림 2-3] 가공식품대분류별월평균가구지출액 ( 한국농수산식품유통공사, 2015) [ 그림 2-4] 하루 1 회이상외식률추이 ( 보건복지부, 2015a) 2.3. 한국인의식생활관련건강문제 이용가능한식품의종류와양이크게늘어나면서, 언제어디서나원하는식품과음식을구매할수있는환경이갖추어졌다. 이와같은풍요로운식품환경은인체가필요로하는양보다과잉으로섭취하거나, 특정한식품을너무많이혹은적게섭취하는불균형적인식생활을초래할위험이증가하는원인이되었다 ( 정효지등, 2013). 불균형적인식생활은한국인의주요사망원인인암, 심장질환, 뇌혈관질환, 당뇨병, 간질환, 고혈압성질환등의만성질환과밀접하게관련성이있는것으로보고되고있다 ( 통계청, 2015). 한편, 일부집단은영양소섭취부족에시달리고있어서한국사회의영양관련건강문제는과잉-과소의이중적으로살펴볼필요가있다. 2.3.1. 영양부족으로인한건강문제국민들의생활수준은전반적으로향상되었으나, 교육수준, 직업, 소득수준, 재산등에따른일부사회경제적그룹에서는특정한영양소의섭취부족으로인한건강문제를겪고있다 ( 한국보건사회연구원, 2014). 국민건강영양조사에따르면 2014년우리나라성인의저체중유병률이 4.8% 이다. 여성의경우저체중유병률은 2001년 5.5% 에서 2014년 6.4% 로오히려증가하였다 ( 그림 2-5). 주로철섭취부족때문에발생하는여성의빈혈유병률도 1998년 12.6% 에서 2005 년 15.2% 까지증가하였다가감소하여 2014년에는 11.7% 를기록하였다. 이수치는남성빈혈 3.0% 와비교하여약 4배정도높은것이다 ( 그림 2-5). 한편, 2012년국민건강영양 22 한국과학기술한림원
2 장. 한국인의영양상태와영양기준 조사자료에의하면우리나라 50세이상여성의골다공증유병률은 34.9% 로매우높게나타났다 ( 그림 2-6). 또한, 남성과여성모두에서연령이증가할수록골다공증의유병률이급격하게증가하였고, 70세이상여성의 65.2% 가골다공증을갖고있었다. 골다공증의예방을위해서는칼슘과비타민 D 영양상태를개선해야하며, 특히, 폐경기여성및노인에게는집중적인영양관리가필요하다. [ 그림 2-5] 한국성인의저체중및빈혈유병률추이 (a) 저체중 : 19 세이상 (2010, 2014 년 ), 20 세이상 (2001, 2005 년 ); (b) 빈혈 : 30 세이상 ( 보건복지부, 2015a; 보건복지부, 2011; 보건복지부, 2006; 보건복지부, 2002) ( 질병관리본부, 2013) [ 그림 2-6] 2012 년 50 세이상한국성인의골다공증유병률 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 23
2.3.2. 영양과잉또는영양불균형으로인한건강문제우리나라에서영양과잉또는영양불균형과관련있는만성질환의유병률은지속적으로증가하는추세를보인다 ( 그림 2-7). 국민건강영양조사에의하면 19세이상한국성인의비만유병률은 1998년 26.0% 에서 2001년 29.2%, 2005년 31.3% 로증가한후, 2010-2014년까지약 30% 수준을유지하고있다. 당뇨병의유병률은 1998년 11.6% 로가장높았고, 이후감소하여 2014년에는 10.2% 인것으로보고되었다 ( 보건복지부, 2015a). 나트륨의과다섭취와관련있는것으로알려진고혈압은전반적으로감소하고있지만, 남성의경우에는여전히 30% 에가까운유병률을나타내고있다 ( 보건복지부, 2015a). 복부비만, 고혈압, 이상지질혈증, 인슐린저항성등의요인들이복합적으로작용하는대사증후군의유병률도 1998년이후꾸준히증가하고있는것으로나타났다 (Lim 등, 2011). 특히, 한국인의 10대사망원인중 1위를차지하고있는암의경우, 모든암의발생률이 1999년부터 2013년까지연간 3.1% 증가하였다. 2013년우리나라모든암의연령표준화발생률은인구 10만명당 290.5명이었는데 (Oh 등, 2016), 남자의경우위암, 대장암, 폐암, 간암의발생률이높았고, 여자의경우갑상선암, 유방암, 대장암, 위암의발생률이높았다 ( 그림 2-8). 이와같이, 한국인의건강을위협하고있는만성질환은과일과채소의섭취량부족, 지방의과잉섭취, 당류및나트륨의과잉섭취등으로인한부적절한식습관이주요한원인으로작용하기때문에 (WHO, 2013; Freeman & Junge, 2005; 김유진 & 오상우, 2012), 만성질환관리를위한정책및사업을마련할때에는영양균형을충분히고려해야할것이다. 24 한국과학기술한림원
2 장. 한국인의영양상태와영양기준 [ 그림 2-7] 한국성인의만성질환유병률추이 (a) 비만 : 19 세이상 ; (f) 대사증후군 : 20 세이상 ; (b)-(e) 그외질환 : 30 세이상 ( 보건복지부, 2015a; Lim 등, 2011) (Oh 등, 2016) [ 그림 2-8] 우리나라주요암종의성별연령표준화발생률추이 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 25
2.4. 한국인의건강을지키기위한영양기준 올바른영양섭취는만성질환을예방하고건강을지키기위한필수조건이다. 한국인영양소섭취기준 (Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans) 은국민의건강증진및질병예방에필요한에너지및각영양소의적정섭취량을나타낸것이다. 많은국가에서영양소섭취기준을제정하여식생활관련정책이나사업에활용하고있다. 사람들은개별영양소를선별하여섭취하지않고, 식품이나음식에포함되어있는여러영양소를동시에섭취한다. 따라서일반인들이쉽게활용할수있도록식품섭취및식생활의기준도함께제시하고있다. 2.4.1. 한국인영양소섭취기준우리나라의영양권장량은 1962년에처음제시되었다. 당시국제연합식량농업기구 (FAO) 한국협회에서에너지, 단백질, 비타민 A, 티아민, 나이아신, 비타민 C, 비타민 D 등 10개영양소에대해한국인영양권장량을발표하였다. 이후여러기관이관여하여 7차례에걸쳐개정되어사용되었다. 영양부족으로인한건강문제가점차감소하고, 영양불균형및영양과잉으로인한만성질환의문제가대두되면서, 2005년한국영양학회에서영양부족과영양과잉의문제를포괄하는새로운개념의영양소섭취기준을제시하게되었다 ( 한국영양학회, 2005). 최근에는 국민영양관리법 이제정되어, 영양소섭취기준을제정하는것이정부의법적인임무가되었다. 이에따라보건복지부는인체필요량에대한최신의과학적근거와한국인의식생활, 체위기준, 건강상태의변화를반영하여, 에너지를포함한총 36종의영양소에대하여 2015 한국인영양소섭취기준 을제정하여발표하게되었다 ( 보건복지부, 2015b). 한국인영양소섭취기준은평균필요량 (Estimated Average Requirement, EAR), 권장섭취량 (Recommended Intake, RI), 충분섭취량 (Adequate Intake, AI), 상한섭취량 (Tolerable Upper Intake Level, UI) 의네가지로구성되어있다. 한국인영양소섭취기준은개인과집단의식사평가및계획뿐만아니라, 가공식품의표시기준, 단체급식의기준, 식생활정책및영양관리사업등에도광범위하게활용할수있다. 26 한국과학기술한림원
2 장. 한국인의영양상태와영양기준 2.4.2. 식사구성안과식품구성자전거일반인들이영양소기준을일상적식생활에적용하는데어려워할수있으므로, 나라별로영양소섭취기준을충족하는식품섭취량을제안한식사구성안이나식품모델을다양하게개발하여사용하고있다. 우리나라에서도한국인영양소섭취기준을충족할수있는식사구성안이마련되었다 ( 보건복지부, 2015b). 식사구성안은상용식품을곡류, 고기 생선 달걀 콩류, 채소류, 과일류, 우유 유제품류, 유지 당류의여섯가지식품군으로분류하여, 각식품군별로적절한섭취수준을제시하고있다. 일반인들의이해도를증진하기위해식사구성안을그림으로표현한것이식품구성자전거모델이다. 우리나라의식품구성자전거는균형잡힌식생활과규칙적인운동, 수분의적절한섭취가중요함을전달하고있다 ( 그림 2-9). 2.4.3. 식생활지침국민들에게건강한식생활을보급하기위해각나라에서는고유한건강문제와영양문제, 그리고식습관을고려하여식생활지침을마련하고있다. 우리나라에서는 1986년한국영양학회가처음으로 10개항목의식사지침을제시하였고, 이후식생활지침이지속적으로개정되고있다. ( 보건복지부, 2015b) [ 그림 2-9] 식품구성자전거 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 27
2016년에이르러보건복지부, 농림축산식품부, 식품의약품안전처에개별적으로분산 개발되어있는식생활지침을 국민공통식생활지침 으로통합하게되었다 ( 보건복지부, 2016). 국민공통식생활지침 은균형있는영양소섭취, 올바른식습관, 한국형식생활, 식생활안전등을종합적으로고려하여, 총아홉가지의수칙으로구성되어있다. < 표 2-4> 국민공통식생활지침 1. 쌀, 잡곡, 채소, 과일, 우유 유제품, 육류, 생선, 달걀, 콩류등다양한식품을섭취하자 2. 아침밥을꼭먹자 3. 과식을피하고활동량을늘리자 4. 덜짜게, 덜달게, 덜기름지게먹자 5. 단음료대신물을충분히마시자 6. 술자리를피하자 7. 음식은위생적으로필요한만큼만마련하자 8. 우리식재료를이용한식생활을즐기자 9. 가족과함께하는식사횟수를늘리자 ( 보건복지부 ; 농림축산식품부 ; 식품의약품안전처 ) < 문제해결에필요한과학기술 > (1) 영양소섭취기준제정에필요한각영양소별인체필요량및질병과의관련성에대한과학적근거의생산 (2) 영양소섭취수준의평가범위확대를위한상용식품의영양소및기타성분데이터베이스구축및확대 (3) 우리나라식생활을반영한각질환자의식생활관리를위한식생활지침의개발 (4) 개인의영양소섭취부족 / 과잉, 식품군의섭취부족 / 과잉실태를정확하게평가할수있고, 건강상태와연계하여관리할수있는모바일헬스케어기술개발 28 한국과학기술한림원
2 장. 한국인의영양상태와영양기준 참고문헌강민지, 정효지, 임정현, 이연숙, 송윤주. 우리나라성인의식사패턴변화추세 1998, 2001, 2005년도국민건강영양조사자료를이용하여-. 한국영양학회지. 2011; 44(2):152-161. 김유진, 오상우. 한국인의남녀직업군별복부비만과대사증후군의위험. 대한비만학회지. 2012;21(2):108-114. 보건복지부. 2001년도국민건강 영양조사 검진편-. 2002. 보건복지부. 국민건강영양조사제3기 (2005) 검진조사. 2006. 보건복지부. 2010 국민건강통계 : 국민건강영양조사제5기 1차년도 (2010). 2011. 보건복지부. 2014 국민건강통계 : 국민건강영양조사제6기 2차년도 (2014). 2015a. 보건복지부. 2015 한국인영양소섭취기준. 2015b. 보건복지부보도자료. 정부, 건강한식생활위해국민공통식생활지침 제정. 2016. ( 보도일 : 2016년 4월 8일 ) 정인경한국인의비타민 D 부족유병률에관한연구. 한국영양학회, 2013;46(6): 540-551. 정효지, 김복희, 송윤주, 이정은. 보건영양학. 양서원. 2013. 질병관리본부. 2012 건강행태및만성질환통계- 국민건강영양조사제5기 3차년도 (2012) 및제8차 (2012) 청소년건강행태온라인조사 -. 2013. 통계청보도자료. 2014년사망원인통계. 2015. ( 보도일 : 2015.09.23) 한국농수산식품유통공사. 2015 가공식품소비량및소비행태조사. 2015. 한국농촌경제연구원. 식품수급표. 1994. 한국농촌경제연구원. 식품수급표. 2015. 한국보건사회연구원. 한국의건강불평등지표와정책과제. 2014. 한국영양학회. 한국인영양섭취기준. 2005. Freeman MW, Junge CE. The Harvard Medical School guide to lowering your cholesterol. McGraw Hill Professional. 2005. Lim S, Shin H, Song JH, Kwak SH, Kang SM, Yoon JW, Choi SH, Cho SI, Park KS, Lee HK, Jang HC, Koh KK. Increasing prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korea: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1998-2007. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(6):1323-1328. Oh CM, Won YJ, Jung KW, Kong HJ, Cho H, Lee JK, Lee DH, Lee KH; Community of population-based Regional Cancer Registries. Cancer statistics in Korea: incidence, mortality, survival, and prevalence in 2013. Cancer Res Treat. 2016;48(2):436-50. WHO (World Health Organization). A global brief on hypertension. 2013. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 29
3 장 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 3.1. 서론 한국의농업은농업수리시설의건설, 기계화영농이가능하도록농도와용 배수로의정비등농업생산기반정비를추진해왔다. 그결과 80% 정도의논에농업용수를공급하고있고, 90% 이상의농작업이기계화되었다. 관개와비료 농약사용으로단위면적당높은생산성을유지하고있다. 벼생산량은 2014년기준 10a당 691 kg으로세계평균 327 kg의약 2.1배이고, 주요국가와거의같은수준의생산성을유지하고있다. 또한시설재배를통하여연중신선한과채류를공급하고있다. 이장에서는경지면적의현황과과제, 농업용수이용현황과문제점, 개선방안등을살펴보고, 농업부문에너지소비현황, 비료와농약사용등농업생산여건을고찰하도록한다. 3.2. 경지면적과수리답현황 3.2.1. 경지면적 경지면적은 2014년말현재 1,691천 ha이며, 이중논면적은 933.6천 ha (55.2%), 밭 757.5천 ha (44.2%) 이다. 인구 1인당경지면적은 0.03 ha로주요국가보다훨씬작으며 ( 예미국 1.5 ha, 프랑스 0.5 ha, 영국 0.3 ha), 농가호당면적은 1.51 ha이다. 경지이용목적별로는벼 815.5천 ha, 맥류, 잡곡, 두류, 서류등 197.0천 ha, 채소 286.4천 ha, 시설작물 93.5천 ha 등으로경지이용률은약 110% 이다. 1970 2015년의연도별경지면적변화는그림 3-1과같다. 그림 3-1에서는 1970~2010 년은 10년단위변화, 2011년이후는연도별로표시하였다. 경지면적은 1970년 2,298천 ha에서 1980년 2,196천 ha, 1990년 2,109천 ha, 2000년 1,889천 ha, 2010년 1,715천 ha로연평균 16.5천 ha 정도감소하였다. 2000년이후 15년동안연평균감소율은 13.8천 ha 로나타났다. 경지면적의감소원인은논 밭의전환, 건물건축, 유휴지, 공공시설용 30 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 지등이다. 한편, 농림축산식품부 ( 이하농식품부 ) 는간척개발사업을통하여농지확대를도모하고있다. 그러나새로조성된경지가기존경지의생산성을갖는데는많은시간이소요된다. ( 농림축산식품부, 2015) [ 그림 3-1] 연도별경지면적 3.2.2. 수리답수리시설을갖춘논을수리답이라고하며, 그면적은 752.6천 ha으로수리답률은 80.6% 이다. 수리답중 512.6천 ha(68%) 는한국농어촌공사에서수자원관리를하고있다. 가뭄빈도 10년의물부족상황에서도용수공급이가능한수리안전답은 575천 ha 이며, 수리안전답률은 59.6% 이다. 그림 3-2는최근 6년간의논면적, 수리답면적과수리답율등의변화를보여준다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 31
( 한국농어촌공사, 2014) [ 그림 3-2] 연도별수리답면적및수리답률 3.2.3. 밭기반정비농식품부는 30 ha 이상의주산단지및집단화된밭을대상으로용수개발, 농로개설등을실시하는밭기반정비사업을시행하고있다. 밭기반정비사업의대상면적은밭면적의 24% 인 180천 ha를목표로하고있으며, 1994 2013년까지 101.2천 ha를시행하였다. 표 3-1은 2007 2013년에밭기반정비사업실적을정리한것이다. < 표 3-1> 2007 2013 년도밭기반정비현황 연도별 지구수 면적, ha 관정수 관개면적, ha 2007 56 1,935.6 28,143 2,801 2008 53 2,385.3 38,712 222 2009 46 2,094.7 3,450 4,971 2010 60 3,163.8 58,786 319 2011 95 4,524.2 85,882 24,697 2012 91 3,965.5 51,350 570 2013 75 3,163.1 39,240 2,601 계 476 21,232.2 305,563 36,181 32 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 3.3 수자원현황과농업용수이용량 3.3.1. 강수량 우리나라의연평균강수량은 1,277 mm로서세계평균강수량 807 mm의약 1.6배이다. 과거 100년간연강수량은최저 754 mm (1939년) 와최고 1,756 mm (2003년) 으로 2.3배차이를나타냈다. 그림 3-3과같이연강수량은증가추세를보여준다. 1960년대이후연강수량의변동폭이크고대홍수와극심한가뭄이빈발하고있어, 수자원시설물에의한용수공급과홍수방어능력을취약하게하는원인이되고있다. ( 한국수자원학회, 2016) [ 그림 3-3] 우리나라의연평균강수량의변화 3.3.2. 수자원현황국토교통부의수자원장기계획에따르면우리나라수자원총량은연평균강수량과국토면적을곱한값에북한지역으로부터유입량 ( 연 23억 m 3 ) 을고려한 1,297억 m 3 이다. 그림 3-4는수자원현황을보여준다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 33
[ 그림 3-4] 우리나라수자원현황 ( 국토교통부, 2016) 수자원총량중증발산손실을제외한하천유출량은 753억 m 3 (58%) 이며, 이를가용수자원량이라한다. 인구 1인당가용수자원량은 2005년기준 1,453 m 3 이다. 수자원이용량은 333억 m 3 로서수자원총량의 26% 이며, 이중하천유지용수를제외한취수이용량은 225억 m 3 으로가용수자원량의 34% 이다. 취수이용률에따른물스트레스국가구분에따르면중 고에해당한다. 한편, 농업용수이용량은 159억 m 3 로서취수이용량의 62% 이며, 생활용수 75억 m 3 의 2.1배정도이다. 농업용수이용량은논용수 142억 m 3 (89%), 밭및기타용수 17억 m 3 (11%) 정도로대부분논벼재배에쓰이고있다. 3.3.3. 농업용수원공농업용수를공급하기위한수원공은저수지, 양수장, 보 ( 취입보 ), 지하수 ( 관정, 집수암거 ) 등이있다. 여기서관정이란암반지하수채수를위한시설이며, 집수암거는지표면가까이의복류수를채수하는집수공을말한다. 2013년말현재논용수공급을위한수원공은저수지 17,427개소, 양수장 7,833개소, 보 18,105개소, 관정 23,968개소, 집수암거 2,669개소이다. 수원공별수리답면적은저수 34 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 지 454천 ha (58.4%), 양수장 197천 ha, 보 71천 ha (9.1%), 관정과집수암거 50천 ha (6.5%) 이다. 수원공별관개면적은표 3-2에서와같다. 수원공 시설수 < 표 3-2> 농업수자원의관개면적규모별수원공개소수와면적백분율 관개면적 ( 천 ha) 관개면적규모별수원공개소수와면적백분율 10ha 미만 50ha 100ha 500ha 1000ha 1000ha 이상 개소수 면적 % 개소수 면적 % 저수지 13,671 453,925 8,417 8.7 4,031 17.0 506 8.0 623 29.1 55 9.2 39 28.0 양수장 2,610 197,447 986 2.6 1,190 12.4 168 6.2 198 22.8 35 12.2 33 43.7 보 8,431 71,079 6,609 35.6 1,681 42.5 101 9.4 36 8.4 3 2.4 1 1.6 지하수 13,896 49,878 13,418 82.9 466 15.0 10 1.2 2 0.9 0.0 0.0 계 38,608 772,329 29,430 14.4 7,368 18.0 785 7.3 859 23.8 93 8.8 73 27.8 ( 농업생산기반통계연보 2013) 개소수 면적 % 개소수 면적 % 개소수 면적 % 개소수 면적 % 저수지의저수량은총 31억 m 3 으로, 개소당평균저수량은 179천 m 3 이다. 저수량규모별로살펴보면, 100천 m 3 이하의저수지가 15,319개소로서전체의 88% 에달한다. 준공연도별로는 1945년이전에준공된저수지가 9,005개소로서전체의 61.7% 를차지하고, 50년이상경과된저수지는 3,089개 (17.7%), 30년이상경과 4,483개소 (25.7%) 이며, 30년이내준공저수지는 850개소 (4.9%) 이다. 이와같이저수지의대부분이소류지수준의유효저수량을갖고있고, 50년이상의노후저수지비율이 69.4% 로서제기능을다하지못하는경우가많다. 3.3.4. 용 배수로 2013년말기준용 배수로의총길이는 186,604 km로서이중토공 104,838 km, 구조물 81,766 km이다. 관개수로의길이는 117,415 km이며토공수로 56,225 km, 구조물수로 61,160 km로서용수로의구조물화비율은 52.1% 이다. 토공수로에서는누수 침투등으로수로손실률이 20 25% 정도로서관개효율저하에큰영향을미친다. 또한수로내수초로인하여유속이줄어제때에물을보내지못하는등물관리에불리하다. 노후화된수리시설개보수가시급한실정이다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 35
3.3.5. 농업용수수요량농업용수수요량은논, 밭, 시설재배, 축산등에서필요한수량을말한다. 논용수량은연도별기상조건, 재배방식등에따른단위면적당필요량을추정하고, 장래경지면적을고려하여추정한다. 연간수요량의결과로부터빈도해석을실시하여재현기간 10 년의필요수량을농업용수수요량으로하고있다. ( 한국농어촌공사, 2016) [ 그림 3-5] 연도별논필요수량 그림 3-5는 1990 2015년의연도별논용수량의추정결과를보여준다. 연평균필요수량은 98억m 3 이며, 최대값은 1994년의 133억 m 3, 최소값은 2003년은 59억 m 3 으로추정되었다. 즉, 연용수량은최소값과최대값이약 2.3배정도차이를나타내어, 편차가매우큼을알수있다. 이는관개기간중유효우량의차이에기인한다. 여기서유효우량이란강우량중논물로이용되는양을말한다. 밭용수량은논벼와는달리이앙용수와담수재배용수등이소요되지않으므로, 증발산량과밭작물재배용수 ( 다목적용수량이라고한다 ), 유효우량등을고려하여추정한다. 비닐온실등에서이용되는시설재배용수는밭용수량과같은방법을적용하나, 실내에서재배하므로유효우량을고려하지않는다. 한국농어촌공사에서는장래영농방식의변화, 논, 밭면적, 시설재배면적, 가축사육 36 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 두수의변화추이를감안하여, 농업용수연간수요량을표 3-3에서와같이추정하였다. 농업용수수요량은 2016년현재약 159억 m 3 으로추정하였다. 한편, 한국농어촌공사의농업용수의장래수요량추정결과에따르면, 경지면적의감소등으로 2020년은 153억 m 3, 2025년은 149억 m 3 으로감소될것으로예측되었다. 논용수 구분 한강수계 < 표 3-3> 권역별농업용수수요량 낙동강수계 권역별용수량 ( 백만 m 3 ) 금강수계 섬진강수계 영산강수계 평균 2,257.7 2,928.7 3,350.4 1,005.5 1,618.1 3.5 11,163.9 평년 2,258.1 2,929.4 3,351.2 1,005.7 1,618.5 3.5 11,166.4 10년빈도 2,754.9 3,782.4 4,231.1 1,325.4 2,060.9 4.2 14,168.9 유효우량 1,767.6 2,388.5 2,624.2 966.5 1,269.6 1.7 9,018.1 밭 평균 236.7 308.5 176.7 60.6 105.1 70.6 958.2 용 평년 236.8 308.7 176.8 60.6 105.1 70.6 958.6 수 10년빈도 368.3 473.4 274.6 98.0 160.8 118.5 1,503.6 축산용수 64.5 52.1 48.9 11.7 17.4 5.0 199.6 계 (10년빈도 ) 3,197.7 4,307.9 4,554.6 1,435.1 2,239.1 127.7 15,872.1 ( 농촌용수종합정보시스템, 2016) 제주 계 3.4 농업수자원관리의과제 농업수자원이지속가능한공급을위한주요과제는 1) 기존저수지의재개발과용 배수로정비등수리시설의개보수, 2) 저수지운영개선, 3) 물관리효율의개선, 4) 물이용효율의증대등을들수있다. 이상의과제를정리하면다음과같다. 3.4.1. 수리시설개보수농업용저수지의노후화로인하여집중호우시제방붕괴등의피해가발생하고있다. 저수지내토사퇴적으로제기능을발휘하지못한경우가많다. 또한유효저수량이충분하지못하여하천유지용수를공급할수없는것이현실이다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 37
농식품부에서는기존저수지의토사준설, 제방등시설개보수와를토공수로정비사업을추진하고있다. 수리시설개보수사업은농업용수의지속가능한공급에기여할것으로평가되고있다. 3.4.2. 저수지조작저수지조작이란언제, 얼마나관개용수를공급할것인가를말한다. 한국농어촌공사에서는예년의시기별저수율을근거로저수지운영을하고있다. 현재의저수율이예년보다높으면정상적으로조작하고, 예년보다낮으면일정비율만큼관개량을줄이는방법이다. 그런데, 저수지조작연구결과는기존의운영규칙을이용한저수지조작방법은가뭄상황에취약한것으로나타났다. 저수지운영규칙의개선을위한방안으로는 1) 작물생육단계와저수율에따른관개량조절, 2) 장단기기상예보결과를고려한저수지조작, 3) 장마직전의저수율을최소화하도록관개량을조절하는방법등이있다. 따라서기존의저수지조작방법보다기상여건의변동성을고려하여한정된저수량을효율적으로활용하도록하는것이필요하다. 3.4.3. 관개효율개선관개효율은수원공으로부터공급되는관개량중논 밭에서실제로이용되는양의비율 (%) 로서정의된다. 필지에서이용되지않는손실량은도수손실과관리손실로구분된다. 도수손실은수자원으로부터필지로물을보내는중침투나누수로인한손실로서수로의재료에따라다르다. 예를들어, 토공수로에서는손실률은 20 25% 정도이고, 콘크리트수로는 15% 정도이다. 관리손실은관개시기와양등의물관리방법의부실로인한손실량, 상 하류간관개량이나필지간담수심의차이, 즉관개용수를균등하게배분하지않아발생하는양과필지의물고관리를부실로인하여배수되는양등으로부터발생한다. 농식품부는농업용수관리자동화 (Tele-Metering/Tele-Control) 사업을추진하고있다. 농업용수관리자동화는물관리기술을과학화하여농업용수관리의효율화를도모하는사업이다. 38 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 3.4.5. 물이용효율지금까지관개방식은필요한양을필요한시기에공급하는것이다. 가뭄으로인하여물부족이발생하면관개량을줄이고관개시기를늦추는방법으로대응해왔다. 그런데작물은생육시기에따라서물스트레스에대한적응력이다르다. 따라서물스트레스와작물수확량의관계를고려하는부족관개방법, 즉조절된부족관개 (regulated deficit irrigation) 의도입이필요하다. 부족관개는주로밭작물관개에서적용되고있는방법으로, 작물수확량감소를최소화하는범위에서생육단계중일부기간동안필요량보다작은양 ( 부족량 ) 을관개하는방법이다. 부족관개의목적은물이용효율 (water use efficiency) 을증가시키는데있다. 여기서물이용효율은증발산량 1 mm에대한작물수확량 (kg) 으로정의한다. 부족관개에서물이용효율을높이려면작물수확량의감소가허용가능한범위내에서관개시기와양을결정해야한다. 작물별로물스트레스에민감한시기에는관개량을늘리고, 덜민감한시기에만관개량을줄여물을절약하는것이다. 부족관개의적용을위해서는과학적인연구개발이필요하다. 3.5. 농업에너지이용현황과과제 3.5.1. 개요 한국의총에너지소비량은 2013년말현재 210백만 TOE ( 원유1톤발열칼로리기준 ) 로서석유, 전력소비증가에따라 2000년대비약 40% 증가하였다. 농어업부문에너지소비비중은표 3-4에서와같이총소비량의 1.6% 인 3.3백만 TOE이며, 이중석유제품 2.2백만 TOE, 전력 1.1백만 TOE로나타났다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 39
구분 연도별 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2013 총에너지소비량 75,107 121,962 149,852 170,854 195,587 210,247 농림어업 계 석유제품 전력 1,813 (2.4%) 1,687 (3.7%) 125 (1.5%) < 표 3-4> 연도별농림어업에너지소비량 3,224 (2.6) 2,934 (3.5) 290 (2.1) 4,069 (2.7) 3,600 (3.9) 456 (2.2) *( ) 는국가총소비량대비비중 (%) ( 자료 : 에너지통계연보 ) 3,385 (2.0) 2,755 (2.9) 603 (2.1) 3,201 (1.6) 2,333 (2.3) 864 (2.3) ( 단위 : 천 TOE) 3,310 (1.6) 2,183 (2.1) 1,123 (2.7) 한국농촌경제연구원 (2013) 에따르면농업에너지소비는석유류 57.2%, 전기 35.0%, 석탄류 7.7% 이었다. 용도별로는농기계에 55.3%, 시설및축사냉난방에 32.3%, 건물및사무실에 8.8% 등이었다. 작물별로는시설원예작물재배의난방용으로 76.3% 로가장많으며, 주로시설채소, 시설화훼재배에서사용되었다. 농업부문의석유제품과전력소비형태는표 3-5와같다. 벼농가의석유류 94% 를농기계작업에서소비하고있으며, 전력은수확후건조, 정미및보관등에서 90% 를사용하고있다. 시설과채농가에서는석유류와전력소비가주로가온에서발생하고있다. 과수농가에서는석유류는농기계사용에서 90%, 전력은저장에서 78% 를소비하고있는것으로나타났다. < 표 3-5> 농업부문의석유류와전력소비형태 구분석유류전기기타에너지 벼농가 농기계 94% 차량 3% 건조, 정미및보관 90% 과채농가 ( 시설재배 ) 가온 95% 농기계, 차량 1% 가온 75% 목재팰릿 - 가온 과수농가 농기계 90% 차량 3% 저장 78% 과원관리 22% ( 한국농촌경제연구원, 2013) 40 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 3.5.2. 벼농가벼재배의농작업기계화율은 1991년 67% 에서 2009년 91% 로증가하였다. 10a 당노동투하시간은 1991년 54시간에서 2007년 19시간으로 65% 감소하였다. 농작업의기계화에따라유류사용량도크게증가하였다. 한국농촌경제연구원 (2013) 의농업부문에너지이용실태조사결과에따르면, 벼농가의연간에너지사용량은경유 6천리터, 등 중유, 벙커C유등 4천리터, 휘발유 4백리터, 전기 4천만원으로나타났다. 벼농가의에너지별사용용도는표 3-6에서와같다. 경유와휘발유는농작업용농기계에 90% 이상사용하지만, 등유, 중유등기타석유류는농기계에 16%, 건조 정미작업에 84% 를사용하고있다. 전기는대부분건조 정미와보관등에서사용되고있었다. 다만, 조사대상벼농가중시설재배를겸하는농가가포함되어농기계와축산용전기사용이포함되어기타로분류되었다. < 표 3-6> 벼농가의에너지사용용도 ( 단위 : %) 구분 농기계 건조, 정미 보관 수송 기타 경유 면세 93.7 4.2 0.0 1.3 0.8 구입 93.9 2.8 0.0 3.0 0.3 등유 중유, 벙커C 유 16.0 84.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 휘발유 99.1 0 0.0 0.3 0.7 전기 ( 일반 ) 8.2 36.5 18.0 0.0 37.7 ( 한국농촌경제연구원, 2013) 3.5.3. 시설과채농가시설과채농가의에너지사용량은석유류연간사용량은토마토는경유 31천리터, 등유및중유등 26천리터를사용하고있다. 오이는경유 22천리터, 등유및중유등 12천리터를사용한다. 시설과채류생산에서에너지사용량은겨울철재배여부와재배면적에비례하여증가한다. 에너지사용용도는주로가온을위해쓰고있다. 가온을위해석유류 95%, 전기사용량의 95% 도가온을위해소비하고있었다. 과수농가의경우는유류의 90% 를농기계작업에서소비하고있으며, 저장, 과수원 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 41
관리등을위한전기를소비하고있었다. 조사대상과일농가의 67% 인 76호에서저온창고를보유하고있었다. < 표 3-7> 과수, 채소농가의에너지사용량및용도별백분율 구분 토마토농가 (87 호 ) 오이농가 (93 호 ) 과수농가 (110 호 ) 에너지 농기계 건조, 정미 사용용도 (%) 저장수송가온기타 경유 ( 면세 ) 3.5 0 0.5 91.2 0 경유 ( 구입 ) 0.8 0 0 99.2 0 등, 중유, 벙커C유 1.1 0 0 98.7 0.2 휘발유 100 0 0 0 0 전기 ( 만원 ) 27.5 2.2 0 64.3 6 경유 ( 면세 ) 8.4 0 0.3 91.2 0.1 경유 ( 구입 ) 7.2 0 0 92.8 0 등, 중유, 벙커C유 1.3 0 0 98.7 0 휘발유 93.6 0 0 6.4 0 전기 ( 만원 ) 8.8 0 0 70.6 2.6 경유 ( 면세 ) 92.5 0 6.4 0 1.2 경유 ( 구입 ) 89.6 0 12.4 0 0 등, 중유, 벙커C유 30 0 0 0 70 휘발유 95.9 0 2.8 0.3 0.9 전기 2.1 77.6 0 14.1 6.2 ( 한국농촌경제연구원, 2013) 3.5.4. 에너지사용의문제점농업에너지사용의문제점은 1) 특정에너지사용이집중되고, 2) 시설원예의노후화로에너지효율이낮고, 3) 농가의비용절감에대한관심부족등이다. 1986년부터시행되고있는면세유공급과낮은원가의농사용전기는대체에너지보급에장애요인으로되고있다. 이로인해시설원예난방비가전체생산비에차지하는비중이높은상태가해소되지않고있다. 예를들어장미농가의난방비비중은 46%, 풋고추 36%, 파프리카 31% 등을차지하고있다. 42 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 시설재배에서는시설노후화로인하여에너지유출비중이높다. 비가림시설에가까운단동비닐온실이전체의 82% 를차지하고에너지절약을위한기본시설이미흡하다. 유리온실의경우도 97% 가 10년이상이되어노후화로인한낮은에너지효율개선이시급한실정이다. 3.5.5. 신재생에너지이용농업부문신재생에너지원은지열, 공기열, 목재펠릿등바이오에너지등이있다. 농식품부에따르면 2009 2010년동안전체가온면적 14.6천 ha 중목재펠릿과지열난방등신재생에너지보급면적은 2.3천 ha로서 16% 에불과하였으며, 목재펠릿보일러는경유보일러에비해비용절감효과에대한농가확신부족및사용에불편을느끼고있다고하였다. 시설원예농가의의향조사에따르면향후도입의향이큰에너지절감시설은다겹보온커튼과수평열, 지열히트펌프이다. 그러나열효율이높은시설의도입은어느농가나원하고있었으나, 비용부담이커서적극적인도입은아직이루어지지않고있다. 가축분뇨에너지화시설은 2010년현재 3개소에설치되었으며, 분뇨처리수익대비전기, 유류등소요비용이높아아직체계적인도입이어려운실정으로추가적인대책이마련되어야하는것으로보고되었다. 한편, 농식품부에서는 2020년까지농업에너지중유류의존도를 2009년 91% 에서 70% 로축소하고, 면세유는 125만 m 3 에서 67만 m 3 로줄이도록계획하고있다. 이를위해서비닐온실의다겹보온커튼보급, 공기열히트펌프등을보급해가고, 지열, 목재펠릿등신재생에너지보급을확대하도록하고있다. 또한발전소온배수열과공장열등폐열원의활용을위한재정지원도시행중에있다. 발전소온배수열은지열에비해시공비가 20% 절감되나에너지절감효과는비슷하다. 발전소온배수열이버려지고있는상황에서시설원예난방으로활용잠재성이매우높다. 따라서발전소등폐열원주변에비닐온실단지등을조성하도록하는방안이추진되고있다. 중장기적대책으로는신재생에너지이용단지의조성하는것이다. 지열, 풍력, 태양열증을활용하는농업에너지이용합리화단지를조성하여농가수익에기여하는방안등이그예이다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 43
3.6 비료와농약사용량과과제 3.6.1. 비료및농약사용량 2004년 2014년비료및농약사용량은그림 3-6과같다. 단위면적당화학비료사용량은 1970년 162 kg에서 1980년 285 kg, 2000년 398 kg으로꾸준한증가추세였다. 2005 년부터비료보조금지원중단되고, 친환경농업의확대보급을위해가축분표퇴비등유기질비료에대한지원확대등으로점차감소하는추세를보였다. 2011년부터토양검정결과를고려한맞춤형비료지원이시작되면서, 2014년에는 258 kg까지감소하여 2008년의 311 kg 대비약 20% 정도감축되었다. 이는당초감축목표 30% 에는못미치지만, 사용량의감축이꾸준히진행되고있음을의미한다. 2014년의화학비료사용량은주요국과비교하여약간높은수준을보이고있다. 그림 3-6의농약사용량은제조업체가농가에판매한성분량기준총량으로, 단위면적당사용량은 1998년 10.4 kg에서 2001년이후약 13 kg 정도를보였다. 2014년은 10.7 kg이며주요국과비교하면다소높은수준으로나타났다. 농약사용량이많은이유는여름철고온, 다습한기후로인하여높은병해충발생과연중재배, 집약생산등의영농특성으로분석되고있다. 최근친환경농산물에대한소비자선호도가높아지고, 농산물에대한안전성기준강화등으로농약사용량이감소될것으로예상하고있다. ( 농림축산식품부, 2016) [ 그림 3-6] 농약및화학비료사용량 44 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 3.6.2. 친환경비료친환경농업에사용되는비료를친환경비료라고하며, 토양검정결과에기초하여꼭필요한양의유기질비료, 토양개량제등을시비하도록하는것이다. 토양검정은전국논, 밭에대한토양정보시스템을구축하여이를바탕으로맞춤형비료를정하여비료를지원하도록하고있다. 농식품부에따르면토양유기물함량목표를 30 g/kg로하여, 지속적인유기질비료공급량을 2017년까지매년 300천톤정도공급을추진중에있다. 유기질비료는농림축산부산물의재활용을통하여확보하는것이다. 축산분뇨의해양투기가금지되면서해양투기량은 2005년 275만톤에서 2011년 77만톤으로감소되었다. 결국축산분뇨관리를위해서는이를자원화하여퇴비나액비형태로공급하는것이시급하다. 또한녹비작물재배는헤어리베치, 자운영, 호밀등의제배를통하여화학비료를줄이도록하는것이다. 그러나퇴비와액비의규격화가이루어지지않고, 과용으로인한환경오염우려도제기되고있다. 전북일대의축산분뇨자원화시설로부터농지에투입된양을조사결과는당초토양검정결과의 3 4배정도투입하는사례가지적되었다. 그원인은퇴비, 액비살포면적이충분하지않아잉여량이발생하는것과농가에서추가로살포해야할화학비료를감축하기위하여더많은양의기비를원하는것등이었다. 3.6.3. 앞으로의과제논, 밭의토양화학성분함량조사결과는양질의함량과는차이가큰사례가많다. 기준치보다높은함량을보인경우는주로유효인산과치환성칼륨함량을보였으며, 시설재배지는염분농도가높은곳이많았다. 기준치이하의함량을보이는경우는논의경우유기물이기준치의 50% 정도, 유효규산은 68% 정도이며, 밭은 ph 6.1정도로산성화되고있으며, 유기물은기준치의 45% 정도로나타나고있다. 앞으로도지속적인토양검정에기초한시비방법의정착이주요과제임을보여준다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 45
3.7 요약및결론 이상에서우리나라수자원현황과과제, 농업수자원의특징및지속가능한농업용수공급을위한여러대안등을논의하였다. 주요내용을정리하면다음과같다. 1 우리나라는취수이용율이 34% 로서많은양의물을취수이용하고있으며, 하천유지유량의확보와수질관리에어려움이크다. 또한지하수취수량이높아매년지하수위가낮아지고, 중소하천의건천화도발생하고있어지속가능한물관리의중요성이매우높다. 2 연간농업용수이용량은 159억 m 3 로서전체취수이용량의 60% 정도이며, 그대부분은논용수로이용하고있다. 그러나수리답비율이 80%, 수리안전답율은 60% 정도로서가뭄시물부족에취약하다. 3 저수지의 70% 정도가준공후 50년이상으로노후화되고, 퇴적토사로유효저수량이감소하여기능저하가우려되고있다. 저수지제방개보수와토사준설, 용 배수로조직의개보수를통하여지속가능한농업용수공급이시급하다. 4 농업용수의물관리효율이낮고, 관개지구의상 하류간, 필지간물공급량의편차가커서물의효율적으로관리하지못하는실정이다. 물관리기술의향상을통하여관개효율을개선하는노력이중요하다. 5 물이용효율고려한관개방식의도입이필요하다. 물부족을극복하기위해서는제한된양의물을효율적으로이용하는것이중요하며, 부족관개방법의도입을검토하는것이필요하다. 농업부문에너지, 비료및농약사용현황과문제점, 개선방안등은다음과같다. 1 농업분야의에너지소비량은석유류와전력이며, 국가총에너지소비량대비 1.7% 정도이다. 농사용면세유및전기사용료할인으로에너지사용패턴은난방등에특정에너지사용이집중되고있다. 2 농가의에너지사용비용절감에대한의식이부족하여신재생에너지보급에장애가되고있다. 정책적으로는면세유공급과에너지절감시설의의무설치를연계하여대체에너지사용량을늘리는방안이추진되는것이필요하다. 4 화학비료및농약사용량은감소추세이나친환경비료사용량을늘리는등화학비료의대체활용이중요하다. 축산분뇨자원화등에서현장기술의개발이필요하다. 46 한국과학기술한림원
3 장. 한국의농업생산기반과잠재력 < 문제해결에필요한과학기술 > (1) 농업용수관리효율개선을위한융 복합기술의개발 1 농업용저수지조작을위한현장계측센서와통신, 소프트기술등융 복합기술개발이필요하다. 2 논담수재배의관개효율개선을위한소프트적기술개발이이루어져야한다. 3 물이용효율개선을위한부족관개방법의현장적용기술개발이필요하다. (2) 농업에너지효율개선 1 가온시설의에너지효율개선을위한하드웨어, 소프트웨어기술이이루어져야한다. 2 농업부문의신재생에너지활용성제고를위한현장기술개발이필요하다. (3) 비료및농약사용 1 축산분뇨의퇴비, 액비생산현장기술개발이필요하다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 47
참고문헌농림축산식품부, 2015 농림축산식품통계연보. 377p. (2015) 농림축산식품부, 한국농어촌공사, 2014 농업생산기반정비통계연보 (2014년) 지속가능발전위원회, 지속가능한물관리정책 (2004) 한국농어촌공사농업기반시설관리, http://rims.ekr.or.kr 한국농어촌공사농촌용수종합정보시스템, http://rawris.ekr.or.kr (Accessed 6 Sep. 2016) 기상청, http://www.kma.go.kr. (Accessed 2 Feb. 2016) 국토교통부, 수자원장기종합계획. http://www.molit.go.kr 한국수자원공사 http://www.kwater.or.kr 김연중외. 농업 농촌에너지이용실태와정책방안. 한국농촌경제연구원 (2013). 김연중외. 농업 농촌에너지이용실태와정책방안. 한국농촌경제연구원 (2014). 김연중외. 농업용에너지생산 이용실태. 한국농촌경제연구원 (2013) 과학기술정책연구원, 농업분야신재생에너지정책방향연구 (2015) 산업통상자원부, 에너지경제연구원, 2014 에너지통계연보. 357p. (2014) 농림축산식품부, 농어업에너지합리화대책 (2011) 48 한국과학기술한림원
4 장 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 4.1. 식량의경제학 식량낭비를거시적으로보면식량의사료화나바이오에너지생산등사람의먹거리를식량이외의다른용도로오남용하는것도포함할수있으나여기에서는식량공급사슬 (food supply chain) 에들어온식량의손실과폐기에국한하여논한다. 농산물생산에서소비까지는여러단계를거치며이과정에서식량의손실과낭비가일어난다. 수확과정에서일어나는손실, 수확후관리과정에서일어나는손실, 가공유통과정에서의손실, 그리고소비과정에서일어나는식품폐기등을들수있다. 표 4-1 은식량사슬의각단계에서일어나는낭비현상을나타낸것이다. < 표 4-1> 식량사슬 (food chain) 에서일어나는식량의낭비 유엔식량농업기구 (FAO) 의발표에의하면 2009년도에발생한세계식량낭비규모는전체생산량의 32% 에달하며, 열량 (calories) 으로환산하면전체생산된식량에너지의 24% 가낭비되었다고한다.(Lipinski et al., 2013) 전세계적으로식용으로생산된식량의가식부위의 1/3가량이손실또는폐기되고있다. 이것은연간 13억톤에해당되며이는농업생산에서부터가정소비까지의식품공급사슬전반에서일어난다. 선진국과후진국의식량낭비총량에는큰차이가없으나북미, 호주, 유럽, 러시아, 한국, 중국, 일본등선진국들은식량손실의대부분이소비단 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 49
계 (10.3-12.6%) 에서일어나며, 후진국들은수확전후의생산지관리단계 (18.3-25.2%) 에서주로일어나고있다. 아프리카와중앙아시아지역의식량낭비가 36% 로가장높으며, 이들지역에서일어나는소비단계의손실은 2.6-5.5% 로비교적낮다. 이것은가난한후진국들의식량손실문제는수확후관리기술이나저장시설의부족에주로기인하며식량이부족하므로소비단계의손실이나폐기량은상대적으로적은것이다. 그러나부유한선진국에서는막대한양의식품이소비단계에서버려지고있으며, 식용이가능한식품이폐기되고있다.(HLPE, 2014) 그림 4-1에의하면 1인당식품낭비량은북미, 호주지역이가장높아 296kg/ 년이며, 소비단계폐기량도 115kg/ 년으로가장높다. 이지역의인구는약 4억명이다. 그뒤를이어러시아를포함한유럽과한 중 일이각각 281kg/ 년과 236kg/ 년을기록하고있으며, 소비단계 1인당식품폐기량은 94kg/ 년과 73kg/ 년이다. 그이외의다른지역은소비단계 1인당폐기량이 33kg/ 년이하로현격한차이를나타내고있다. 따라서미국, 캐나다, 호주, 뉴질랜드, 러시아를포함한유럽국가들, 그리고한국, 중국, 일본의식량낭비현상이심각하며, 특히소비단계의식량낭비를줄여야한다는결론에도달하게된다.( 채희정외, 2016) (HLPE, 2014) [ 그림 4-1] 지역별 1 인당연간식량낭비규모비교 50 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 우리나라는경제성장으로식량이풍족해지면서식량의낭비현상이크게나타나고있다. 그림 4-2를보면식량이부족했던 1970년이전에는국민영양조사보고서 (National Food Consumption Survey) 에서조사된실제섭취량이국가식량수급표 (National Food Balance Sheet) 에나타난 1인당식량에너지공급량보다높게나타난다. 이것은식량이부족하면통계에잡히지않는식량을주변에서많이조달해먹기때문이다. 그러나 1970년이후부터이것이역전되어공급량보다섭취량이적게나타난다. 즉식량수입이원활해져식량부족이해소되면서식량의낭비현상이나타나는것이다. 공급량과섭취량의차이는점점커져 2000년대에들어오면 1인당 1일공급열량은 3000kcal 수준인데섭취열량은 2000kcal 밖에안된다. 즉공급된식량의 1/3이버려지고있음을나타낸다.( 이철호외, 1988; 이철호외, 2014) [ 그림 4-2] 한국의 1 인당 1 일공급열량과실제섭취열량의연도별변화추이 4.2. 한국의수확후관리실태와식량손실현황 한국사회는급격한경제성장으로도시화와산업화가급속하게이루어졌으며그결과식량 ( 농수산물 ) 의생산지와소비되는장소가멀어지게되었다. 따라서수확후에소비되기까지상당한이동거리와보관기간을필요로한다. 예를들어밭에서방금수확한배추로바로김치를담가먹을수있는사람들은이제많지않다. 수확한배추는일 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 51
단농산물집하장으로모아보관하고여기에서경매를거쳐도매상에게팔리며다시소매상을거쳐소비자에게전달된다 ( 그림 4-3). [ 그림 4-3] 농산물의수확후관리구조 자료 ; 경상북도농업정보DB http://db.gba.go.kr/sub02/sub01_view.php?info_no=585&kind_code=16 원료상태로생산되는농 수 축산물의소비형태는 (1) 단순히수송과정을거쳐소비자에게전달되고소비자가조리하여소비하는경우, (2) 적절한형태로가공되어가공식품으로소비되는경우, (3) 식당이나단체급식등조리된식품으로소비자에게제공되어소비되는경우로나눌수있다. 식량손실또는음식물쓰레기는이모든과정에서발생한다. 생산된식량이소비자나가공업체에원재료그대로전달되는과정에서발생하는손실을수확후손실 (Postharvest loss) 이라한다. 4.2.1. 쌀의수확후관리기술쌀은한국인의주식이며연간생산되는곡물 500만톤의 80% 가넘는양이생산되어자급되므로명실상부한한국의주곡작물이다. 쌀의수확후관리과정을보면건조과정이필수적임을알수있다. 수확시기의날씨에따라벼의수분함량은 20% 내외이 52 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 나전통적으로탈곡하기전에들판에서볏단을말려수분함량 16% 수준이되게한다. 탈곡한벼를볕에말려수분함량 13% 가되면가마니에넣어장기저장한다. 벼의상태로저장하였다가먹기직전에도정 (milling) 하는것이밥맛이가장좋다. 벼에는용적으로현미가 50-60%. 왕겨가 40-50% 들어있다. 중량비로는현미 80%, 왕겨 20% 이다. 현미 (brown rice) 는 8% 의강층을포함하고있으며이강층을도정과정에서모두제거한것을 10분도미또는정백미 (polished rice) 라한다. 재래식수확후관리방법은많은노동력이필요하며곡물의손실이크게일어나며비용도많이든다. 실제로한국과미국의수확후관리비용을비교하여보면한국은쌀값의 18% 인반면미국은 4-5% 라고한다. 이러한문제를해결하기위하여우리나라에서는 1980년대초부터미곡종합처리장 (Rice Processing Complex, RPC) 설치를위한연구가시작되어 2000년대초까지전국에 400여개소의 RPC를설치하여쌀의수확후관리기술에서선진국이되었다. 콤바인으로수확한벼를담은트럭이 RPC 공장의수취구에벼를하역하면정선, 건조, 도정, 포장공정이한건물안에서진행되어포장된쌀을제품으로출하하게된다. ( 박현진, 이철호, 2008) 재래식태양건조를했을경우도정미의쇄미 (broken rice) 발생율은 7-16% 에달하나 RPC에서열풍건조하면 3% 로감소한다. 곡물의수분함량 13% 이하에서는미생물과진드기의생육이억제되며 10% 이하에서는사실상모든해충의생육이억제된다. 곡물의수분함량이 16% 를넘으면호흡율이급격히증가하여변질된다. 곡류의저장온도가낮아지면호흡율도낮아지고미생물이나곤충의피해를막을수있다. 일반적으로 15 이하에서는곤충의작용이억제되며, 5 이하에서는딱정벌레 (beetles) 의피해가억제되며, 0 이하에서는곰팡이의생육이억제된다. 곡물저장중해충과진드기 (mite) 의피해는화학물질의훈증 (fumigation) 으로막을수있으며주로메틸브로마이드 (methyl bromide) 나포스핀 (phosphine) 이사용된다. 그러나메틸브로마이드는할로겐화합물이므로오존층파괴위험이있어앞으로그사용이금지될예정이다. 그대안으로이온화조사 (irradiation) 기술이사용될전망이다.( 박현진, 이철호, 2008) IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 53
4.2.2. 과채류의수확후손실한국의원예산업유통규모는약 15조원정도이나수확후관리기술의미비와유통과정중에서발생하는손실로전체유통량중약 20~30% 가량인약 3조원정도가손실되고있고, 이는선진국수준인약 5~20% 에비해매우높은수준이다. 과채류의손실률은수확당시건전도와온도 습도등의보관조건, 운송상태등에따라큰차이를나타낸다. 일반적으로손상되기쉬운종류 ( 딸기, 상추, 버섯등 ) 는보존기간이 1주이내로짧으며손실률도 50% 에달한다. 손상정도가적은종류 ( 사과, 배, 오렌지, 견과류 ) 는보존기간이 2-4주이상이며손실률도 10-20% 내외이다. 표 4-2는주요채소류의수확후유통중에일어나는손실률을단계별로추정한것이다.( 채희정 2016). < 표 4-2> 주요채소류의수확후유통중손실률 유통단계 작물 저장 선별 포장 상 하차 도매 소매 계 (%) 무 - 6.0 12.0 10.1 5.9 34 배추 - 6.5 13.0 11.5 7.1 38.1 고추 7.0 2.3 2.8 3.5 4.8 20.4 마늘 9.1 3.1 1.8 6.3 6.4 26.7 양파 5.4 6.5 3.4 5.4 3.4 24.1 자료 ; 이승구, 마늘수확후관리기술매뉴얼, 농림부농업중앙회 (2006) 표 4-3은우리나라에서많이소비되는대표적인농산물인감자, 마늘, 고추, 양파의수확후손실액을추정한결과이다. 감자의경우 2013년 727,000 톤이생산되었는데감모율 25% 를적용하면 181,750 톤의손실이발생한다. 여기에 kg 당중품도매가격을적용하면연간감자의수확후손실액은 1,574억원이된다. 동일한방법을적용하면이들 4 종류작물의연간수확후손실액은약 2조 1,000억원으로추정된다. 54 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 < 표 4-3> 주요농산물의수확후손실액추산 감자마늘고추양파 연간생산량 1) (ton/year) 727,000 412,000 118,000 1,294,000 감모율 (%) 25 2) 26.7 3) 20.4 3) 24.1 3) 연간감모량 (ton/year) 181,750 110,004 24,072 311,854 도매가격 ( 원 /kg)4) 866 14,166 2,516 1,210 손실비용 ( 억원 ) 1,574 15,583 605 3,773 1) 농림수산주요통계 (2014) 2) 반지하저장고기준, 수확후관리기술매뉴얼, 감자, 농림부, 농협중앙회 (2005) 3) 마늘수확후관리기술매뉴얼, 이승구 (2006) 4) 서울시농수산식품공사유통정보, 부류별가격정보, 2015. 8. 11 현재, 중품기준 ( 감자 : 수미, 고추 : 풋고추, 마늘 1접 3kg) 4.2.3. 가공유통중의식량손실수확단계나수확후관리단계와마찬가지로운송, 가공, 판매과정에서도식품의손실이발생한다. 뿐만아니라가공된식품이라도유통기간이경과한식품은판매할수없게되어폐기되므로이로인한식품의손실도상당하다. 한국식량안보재단의보고서 ( 한국식품기술사협회, 2011) 에의하면국내일반식품 ( 육가공품, 유가공품포함 ) 제조업체 35개소를대상으로한설문조사결과국내식품의평균반품율은 1.45% 수준인것으로추산되었다. 반품율이높은순은다류 > 어육가공품 > 음료류 > 빵또는떡류 > 코코아가공품류또는초콜릿류의순이었으며반품폐기량은음료류 > 빵또는떡류 > 당류 ( 포도당, 엿류, 올리고당등 ) > 조미식품 > 다류의순으로추정되었다. 2009년도가공유통식품의총폐기량을추산한결과약 40만톤으로추정되었으며폐기금액은 5,800억원으로추산되었다. 4.2.4. 소비단계의음식물폐기량우리나라의음식폐기물발생량은 2012년기준 1일 13,209톤으로연간약 500만톤규모이며전체생활폐기물에서음식폐기물이차지하는비중은 27-28% 정도이다. 음식폐기물의구성을보면유통 조리과정에서발생하는폐기물이 57%, 먹고남은음식물이 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 55
30%, 보관폐기식재료가 9%, 먹지않은음식물이 4% 로구성되어있다. 2011년부터 2012년사이에실시된전국폐기물통계조사에의하면하루한사람이배출하는음식물류폐기물양은 311.3g/ 일 / 인이고가정부문 54%(166.7g/ 일 / 인 ), 비가정부문 46%(144.7g/ 일 / 인 ) 로가정부문에서더많이발생하고있는것으로조사되었다. ( 환경부, 2013) 가정부문음식폐기물발생량은하루평균 166.7g/ 인이며연립주택이가장높았고, 단독주택, 아파트, 다세대, 비거주용순으로조사되었다. 종류별비율을보면채소 과일류가가장많아반이상을차지하였고, 곡류와어육류의순이었다. 비가정부문에서는음식점업이 882.3g으로가장많았으며, 숙박업 314.7g, 교육기관 196.7g의순이었다. 발생종류별로는채소류, 곡류, 과일류순으로가정부문의경우와조금달랐다. 음식물쓰레기는가정과소형음식점에서 70%, 대형음식점에서 16%, 단체급식 10%, 유통과정에서 4% 가발생하는것으로조사되었다. 4.3. 식량낭비저감화기술 수확후손실을줄이기위해서는수확물의종류에따른저장생리를이해하는것이중요하며, 숙도조절에의한과숙과부패변질을막는기술이필요하다. 수분함량에의한미생물증식과이로인한부패변질을막기위해수분활성도의이해와적절한건조방법의선택이필수적이다. 또한음식물쓰레기의발생량을줄이고신선식품의유통을원활히하기위해수확현장에서행해지는최소가공방식 (minimal processing) 이활용되고있다. 이외에도보존제를이용한화학적저장방법, 가열살균에의한저장성향상기술, 저온저장에의한콜드체인의이용. 이온화조사기술의활용, 식품포장기술, 사물인터넷 (IoT) 을이용한식량낭비저감화기술, 그리고음식물쓰레기의퇴비화, 사료화및에너지자원화를통한음식물쓰레기저감화방법등이있다.( 채희정외, 2016) 소금을이용한염장발효기술은건조기술과함께우리나라전통식품저장기술을대표하는것으로김치, 젓갈, 장류제조기술은세계적으로잘알려진기술이다. 통조림기술로대표되는가열살균기술은 19세기에유럽에서시작되었으며 20세기말까지전세계적으로이용되어통조림식품시대를열었다. 열역학의발달로시작된냉동기제조는 20세기중엽부터지금까지세계를냉동식품시대로이끌고있다. 우리나라는 1980 년대에각가정마다냉장고를가지게되어콜드체인 (cold chain) 이완비되었다. 식품의 56 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 냉장냉동보관은부패또는식중독미생물의생육을지연하거나방지하여식품의품질을오랫동안유지할수있게한다. 그러나이방법은냉동기를계속가동하여야하므로전기에너지를많이요구하는기술이다. 이러한결점을해소하고차세대식품저장기술로대두되는것이방사선을이용한이온화조사 (irradiation) 기술이다. 4.3.1. 이온화조사기술이온화조사기술또는방서선조사기술 (irradiation) 은현재까지알려진가장안전하고경제적이며효과적인식품저장기술이다. 미래에는포장된식품을높은에너지장을통과시켜살균한후실온에두고필요할때소비하는시대가될것으로예측된다. 이온화조사기술은비열처리기술의하나로서식품중의세균, 곰팡이, 기생충등을죽이거나식물의발아억제, 숙도조절, 해충사멸등을위하여방사선 (γ선, β선, X선등 ) 을쬐는조사 ( 照射 ) 기술을말한다. 1980년유엔식량농업기구와세계보건기구 (FAO/WHO) 는 10 kgy (1Gray = 100rad = 1J/kg) 이하의모든식품조사는무해하다고공인하였으며, 1997년 FAO/WHO 합동전문가회의에서도 70 kgy 수준까지도인체유해물질이발생하지않는다고발표하였다 ( 이철호, 1998). 2015년현재 50여개국가에서이온화조사처리가허용되고있으며, 국제식품규격위원회 (CODEX) 에서는모든식품에 10kGy 이하의이온화조사를이용할수있다고밝히고있다. 미국에서는과일류, 채소류등연간약 1,300만톤의신선식품들의저장성향상과병충해방제를목적으로조사기술이적용되고있다. 우리나라식품공전에서는식품조사 (Food irradiation) 처리기술을 감마선이나전자선가속기에서방출되는에너지를복사 (radiation) 의방식으로식품에조사하여식품등의발아억제, 살균, 살충또는숙도조절에이용하는기술 로정의하고있다. 2015년현재감자, 양파, 마늘, 밤, 생버섯및건조버섯, 난분, 곡류, 두류및그분말, 전분, 건조식육, 어류, 패류, 갑각류분말, 된장, 고추장, 간장분말, 건조채소류, 효모 효소식품, 조류식품, 알로에분말, 인삼 ( 홍삼포함 ) 제품류, 건조향신료및이들조제품, 복합조미식품, 소스류, 침출차, 분말차, 환자식등 28여종류의식품에허용하고있다. 식품조사처리가허용된식품은품목별로허용된흡수선량을초과하지않도록하여야한다.( 채희정외, 2016) 열처리와방사선조사가생물체에미치는영향을비교해보면, 생물체를가열하면 6 5 부근에서단백질의변성에의한효소의불활성화가일어나세포가사멸하기시작 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 57
하며 70 가넘으면대부분의동물과해충은사멸한다. 가열온도가 100 를넘으면대부분의열저항성미생물도사멸한다. 온도가 150 에이르면빵의표면이갈색으로변하는것처럼갈변현상이일어나고, 300 에이르면탄화가일어난다. 탄화된식품중에는암을유발하는발암성물질이생성되기도한다. 방사선에너지는 100 rad에서대부분의고등동물은생존할수없다. 감자, 양파등저장중에싹이자라는채소류는 100 Gy 를조사하면발아가억제된다. 해충은 1 kgy에서사멸하며대부분의세균은 10 kgy에서사멸한다. 조사선량이 100 kgy에도달하면식품은변색이되고이취가발생하여먹을수없게된다. 조사선량이더높아져 200 kgy 이상이되면유해물질이생성되거나유도방사선이생성될가능성이있다. 열처리에서식품이탈정도로가열하지않는것과마찬가지로조사과정에서도식품이변색되고이취가발생할때까지조사할이유가없는것이다. 이온화조사기술을적극활용하면신선식품의수확후손실액 1조 1,251억원, 다류 향신료등분말가공식품의유통중손실액 899억원, 축산및수산가공품의유통중손실액 1,931억원등막대한식량손실의상당부분을줄일수있을것으로보고된바있다 ( 이장은등, 2013). 이온화조사기술은열처리법이나화학적살균법에비해공정이간단하며비용도적고부산물이없는친환경적인기술이다. 종전의훈증에의한해충박멸은주로메틸브로마이드 (methyl bromide) 를훈증제로사용하였으나이들할로겐화합물의사용이지구대기권의오존층을파괴한다는사실이알려지면서사용이제한되고있다. 1997년에체결된몬트리올협약에따라선진국들은 2005년까지, 후진국들은 2015년까지메틸브로마이드의사용을금지하도록되어있다. 따라서세계적으로건조식품과열대과채류의훈증과검역처리를위한대안으로이온화조사기술이사용될것으로전망되고있다. 이온화조사기술은안전하며효과적인저장기술로앞으로예견되는세계식량위기에반드시필요한미래기술임에도불구하고, 방사선에대한소비자들의부정적인식으로널리사용되지못하고있다 ( 이장은등, 2013). 우리나라는 2010년일부소비자들의알권리주장에밀려이온화조사식품의표시제도를확대하여이온화조사된원료를사용한모든식품에표시를의무화했다. 이결과식품제조업체들은조사처리된원료의사용을기피하게되었고결국조사기술이퇴출되는지경에이르렀다. 이온화조사식품에대한소비자들의이해부족과불안감으로인해유용한식품저장기술이사장되고있다. 이러한상황을타개하기위해서는소비자교육을위한과학계의적극적인소통과정부의확고한실용화의지와실천노력이요구된다. 58 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 4.4. 식량낭비를줄이기위한제도적개선 식량낭비는식품저장시설의부족, 저장기술의부족, 식품공급사슬 (food supply chain) 에관여하는사람들의무지와부주의, 관련법규의미비와모순, 식품안전관리규제의불합리등여러가지요인에의해발생한다. 식량낭비를줄이고자하는노력은농업생산자, 식품가공업자, 사료및비료생산업자, 유통업자, 단체급식업자, 소비자, 운송업자등모든식품공급사슬에참여하는이해당사자들 (stakeholders) 뿐만아니라농림축산식품부, 식품의약품안전처, 환경부등식량생산, 유통, 폐기처리에관여하는정부당국자와정책입안자들의역할이크다. 식량손실을줄이기위한제도적장치가잘갖추어지면식품의손실및폐기량이크게감소할수있으며, 손실및폐기되는식품은푸드뱅크등의사회적서비스부문에서식용이가능한부분을일부흡수하고, 식용이불가능한부분은비료, 사료등의용도로 1차전환할수있으며, 바이오연료 바이오폴리머등의산업적생산공정의원료로도사용할수있다. 4.4.1. 식품안전관리제도의개선식품안전 (food safety) 과식량안보 (food security) 는서로상충하고상보하는관계이다. 식량이부족하면식품안전을생각할겨를이없다. 반면에아무리많은음식을쌓아놓고있어도안전하지않으면먹을수없고버리게된다. 식량이부족하면식품안전수준이낮아지고, 식품안전수준이높아지면먹을수있는식량이적어지고식품의가격이상승한다. 그러므로식량안보를위해식품안전수준을적정수준으로맞추도록조정하는사회적합의가필요하다. 1960년대를기점으로기기분석기술이급속도로발전하여분석할수있는성분의종류도많아졌을뿐더러검출할수있는한계도밀리그램 (mg) 수준에서마이크로그램 (ug) 수준을지나나노그램 (ng) 수준으로분석하고있다. 검출한계가밀리그램 (mg) 수준일때에는중금속, 농약등위해성분 (hazard) 이검출되면인체에해를입힐수있는농도이므로검출은곧위험 (risk) 을의미한다. 그러나검출농도가밀리그램의 1/1000 또는백만분의 1 수준으로낮아지면서자연에존재하는거의모든물질이식품에서검출되고독성물질이검출되더라도워낙극미량이므로인체에아무런영향을미치지못한다. 만약독성물질이검출되었다는사실만가지고불안해하면먹을수있는음식이 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 59
없다. 종래의위해요소검출은곧위험이라는등식이성립되지않는경우가많아졌음에도불구하고아직도많은소비자들은위해요소가검출되면위험한것으로인식하고있는실정이다. 이러한소비자들의뒤떨어진의식구조가식품의낭비와손실을부추기고있다 (1) 유통기한표시제도의개선식품은제조된후변질되어폐기하기까지여러단계로구분하여품질과관련된상태를규정할수있다. 그림 4-4의도해와같이식품은일정기간동안최적의품질상태를유지하는기한, 즉품질유지기한 ( 또는상미기한 ), 이후규격상의허용가능한품질수준 ( 시장성품질 ) 을유지하여건강상에이상이없을것으로인정되는기간 ( 소비기한 ), 그리고최종적으로는부패미생물이나병원성미생물에의한변질로섭취가불가능한종료기한에이른다. 실제로식품의품질이먹을수있는수준으로유지되는기간 ( 소비기한 ) 은상미기한보다훨씬길다. 우리나라의유통기한 (sell-by date) 은최적품질유지기간의 70% 에서설정된다. 즉우유의경우최상의품질유지기간, 죽상미기간이냉장온도에서 10일이면유통기한은제조 7일후로정소비자보호원의발표에의하면유통기한이제조일이후 5-7일인우유의경우집의냉장고에서제대로보관하면제조후 30일까지도먹을수있다고한다. 유통기한이 9개월인냉동만두는유통기한만료후 25일이지나도안전에문제가없으며, 냉장빵류는 20일, 건면은 50일이지나도안전하다고한다. ( 한국소비자원, 2010) [ 그림 4-4] 유통기한, 소비기한, 품질유지기한, 상미기한의개념 60 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 그러나우리나라소비자들은유통기한 (sell by date) 을소비기한 (use by date) 으로혼동하여가정에서나식당에서유통기한을경과한식품을대부분폐기하고있는실정이다. 즉, 유통기한경과식품을변질된식품으로오인하고안전성여부와상관없이폐기하고있다. 유통기한을표시하는국가는우리나라가거의유일하며, 미국, 일본, EU, 호주등대부분의국가들은유통기한대신소비기한을표시하고있으며, 대부분은품질유지기한표시를병용하고있다. 한국은식량의자급률이낮아대부분을수입에의존하므로식량을가장아껴야하는나라인데도판매기한이가장짧아식량손실을가장크게일으키는유통기한표시를고집하고있다. 유통기한표시제도에대한홍보를강화하여 유통기한경과제품 = 변질제품 이라는소비자의인식을개선할필요가있다. 유통기한경과 의의미는 팔지말아야한다 는의미이지 먹지말아야한다 는의미가아님을홍보해야한다. 또한저위험식품에대해서는유통기한 ( 품질유지기한 ) 과소비기한을병행표시하고유통기한은경과하였지만소비기한이전의제품에대해서는저가판매또는푸드뱅크기부등이가능하도록법제화할필요가있다. 4.4.2. 푸드뱅크의활용푸드뱅크 (Food Bank) 는식품관련업체나개인으로부터먹을수있는여유식품을기탁받아필요한사람에게무상으로분배해주는복지제도이다. 우리나라의푸드뱅크는 1998년 IMF 외환위기이후서울을포함한 4개지역에서시작하여 2016년현재전국적으로 441개소가설치되어있다. 보건복지부와광역지자체의지도감독하에각각전국푸드뱅크와광역푸드뱅크가운영되고있으며 280개소의푸드뱅크와 127개소의푸드마켓이있다. 주로식품제조 유통기업및개인으로부터여유식품등을기부받아식품 생활용품의부족으로어려움을겪고있는결식아동, 홀로사는노인, 장애인등우리사회저소득계층에식품을지원해주는민간단체중심의물적자원전달체계라고할수있다. 2015년우리나라의푸드뱅크기부금액은총 1,551억원이었으며기부자는식품제조가공업소가 757억원으로가장큰비중을차지하였다. 2015년도푸드뱅크수혜자는 12,924 명으로집계되고있으며, 푸드뱅크기부식품의이용자로가장큰비중을차지하는것은기초생활보장수급자와차상위계층의순인것을보면푸드뱅크가사회복지제도의 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 61
하나로운영되고있음을알수있다. 우리나라푸드뱅크사업의이용자실태및이용특성분석결과에의하면푸드뱅크의이용혜택으로는 식비지출감소 (55.6%), 배고픔감소 (16.6%) 로나타나, 저소득계층에게는생계수단의한방편임을시사하고있으며, 이용자들이푸드뱅크의확대를희망하고있다.( 강혜승등, 2005) 식품기탁제도의활성화는사회복지측면뿐만아니라잉여식품으로인한음식물쓰레기의감소측면에서도의미있는일이나, 우리나라는다른선진국에비하여푸드뱅크사업이활성화되지않고있다. 그이유는유통기한이임박한제품은안전하지못한제품이라는소비자의인식때문이다. 우리나라는 식품기부활성화에대한법률 이 2006년제정되어시행중이며, 푸드뱅크운영규정에의하면식품안전사고로부터이용자들을보호하기위한지침이마련되어있다. 이법률에의하면기탁자의민, 형사상의책임감면에대한내용이포함되어있으나, 현실적으로유통기한임박제품또는초과제품기부에의한이미지손상의우려로인하여기부를기피하는경향이있다.( 채희정외, 2016) 4.4.3. 음식폐기물감소를위한정부시책반찬의가지수가많고푸짐하게차려내는것을미덕으로알던과거우리나라의식문화특성과국물이많은음식특성때문에우리나라는음식폐기물이비교적많다. 특히악취및침출수의문제해결을위해음식폐기물의직매립금지에관한조항을 1997 년에폐기물관리법에설정하였고, 2005년에는전국적으로쓰레기분리배출이이루어져재활용가능한음식물류폐기물의발생량이증가하였다. 2008년도부터는정부가저탄소녹색성장정책을추진함에따라온실가스를감축하는수단으로 폐자원및바이오매스에너지화대책 을수립하였다. 환경부는분리배출에의해증가하는음식물류폐기물의발생을억제하기위하여 2009년부터음식폐기물종량제를시범실시하였다. 비가정부분 ( 음식점및급식소 ) 의음식폐기물발생을억제하기위하여각부분별로감량화방법에관한가이드라인을제작배포하고, 타부처 ( 행정자치부, 농림축산식품부등 ) 와연계하여다양한폐기물발생억제프로그램을운영하고있다. 62 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 (1) 음식물쓰레기종량제정부 ( 환경부 ) 는 2013년부터음식물쓰레기종량제를전국적으로실시하고있다. 음식물쓰레기종량제는버린만큼수수료를내는제도이다. 음식물쓰레기는연간 8천억원의처리비용과 20조원이상의경제적손실을발생시키는데, 전국적으로배출량을 20 퍼센트줄이면연간 1,600억원의쓰레기처리비용절감과에너지절약등으로 5조원에달하는경제적이익이발생할것으로환경부는전망하고있다. 실제로 2012년 12월부터종량제를시행중인경기구리시의경우시행전세대별월 1,500원이던부과비용이 4월말현재 641원으로 57.2퍼센트감소했다. 음식물쓰레기배출량도 19퍼센트줄어든것으로집계됐다. 현재 한국환경공단 은 음식쓰레기종합대책정책 에대한세부정책내용을홈페이지에게시하고있다. (http://blog.daum.net/hellopolicy/6983445) (2) 국민교육환경부는 음식물쓰레기줄이기는하나뿐인지구를지키는위대한실천 이라는표어를걸고음식물쓰레기줄이기운동을적극적으로펴고있다. 음식물쓰레기종량제처리사업과병행하여홈페이지를통해가정과음식점 단체급식소에서실천해야할음식쓰레기줄이기실천사항들을구체적으로제시하고있으며, 식품구매전단계, 구매단계, 조리및식사단계, 그리고음식물쓰레기배출단계에서점검해야할체크리스트를제시하고있다.(http://www.me.go.kr) 또한음식문화개선범국민운동본부를통해 음식물쓰레기줄이기 101가지실천방법 책자를제작하여전국에배포하고있다. 식생활교육국민네트워크는식생활관련전반에대한국민적이해와인식을드높여국민건강증진과환경생태계의보전, 농어업 농어촌의활성화에기여할목적으로 2010 년에설립된농림수산식품부소관의사단법인이다. 서울, 부산, 광주, 경기, 강원, 충북등전국적인지역네트워크를조직하여건전한식생활교육을벌이고있다. 농림축산식품부의식생활교육지원센터로서식생활교육과식생활교육박람회, 가족밥상의날등국민교육사업을전개하고있다. 네트워크는 바른식생활 을에너지와자원의사용을줄이고 ( 환경 ), 영양학적으로우수한한국형식생활을실천하며 ( 건강 ), 자연과타인에대한배려와감사를실천하는 ( 배려 ) 것으로정의하고, 바른식생활이국민의생활속에뿌리내리기위한노력을하고있다.(www.greentable.or.kr) IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 63
< 문제해결에필요한과학기술 > (1) 방사선조사식품에대한국민의올바른이해를통해조사기술의활용촉진 (2) 음식쓰레기사료화및비료화를위한폐기물처리기술개발 64 한국과학기술한림원
4 장. 수확후관리현황과식량낭비 참고문헌강혜승, 홍미나, 양일선, 조미나, 김철재, 정부주도형및민간주도형푸드뱅크 (Food Bank) 사업의이용자실태및이용특성분석, 대한지역사회영양학회지 10:224-233 (2005) 박현진, 이철호, 식품저장학, 고려대학교출판부 (2008) 이장은, 이숙종, 이철호, 식품의이온화조사기술에대한경제성분석, 식품과학과산업, 46(2):58-64 (2013) 이철호, 조사식품안전성과국제교역, 고려대학교출판부 (1998) 이철호, 주용재, 안기옥, 류시생, 지난일세기동안의한국인식습관의변화와보건영양상태의추이분석, 한국식문화학회지, 3(40) 397-406, (1988) 이철호, 문헌팔, 김용택, 이숙종, 이꽃임, 선진국의조건식량자급, 도서출판식안연, (2014) 채희정, 이숙종, 이철호, 식량낭비줄이기, 도서출판식안연 (2016) 한국소비자원, 유통기한경과식품 ( 빵류 ) 의섭취적정성조사결과보고, 2010 한국식품기술사협회, 유통기한경과로인한폐기식품의발생현황과감축방안, 한국식량안보연구재단 (2011) 환경부, 전국폐기물발생및처리현황, 한국환경공단 (2013) Lipinski, B., Hanson, C., Lomax, J., Kitinoja, L., Waite, R. and Searchinger, T., Reducing food loss and waste, Installment 2 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future. Working Paper, Washington DC, World Resource Institute (2013) HLPE, Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems, A report of the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, Rome (2014) IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 65
5 장 기후변화와한국농업의전망 5.1. 한반도와기후변화 기상청 (Korea Meteorological Administration, 2015) 의기상연보에따르면우리나라의연평균기온은점점상승하는추세이다 ( 그림 5-1). 2000년이전의연평균기온은상대적으로낮은편이나 2013년이후점차상승하는경향을보인다. 연평균기온의상승폭이점점증가하는추세로보아우리나라의기온은점차상승하고있음을알수있다. ( 기상청, 2015) [ 그림 5-1] 우리나라의연평균기온변화 농촌진흥청시나리오에따르면현재의추세로는, 2050년우리나라의평균기온이지난 30년간평균기온 12.3 에비해무려 3.2 상승하고, 강수량은 16% 증가해내륙을제외한대부분의지역이아열대가될것이라고보고한다. 태풍은열적조건 ( 해수면온도, 해양열용량 ) 이높은지역을이동하면서잠재열을내포하여강한강도를유지하게되고결국큰피해를주게된다. 따라서기후변화로인한해수면온도의증가는결국태풍의호조건을형성하게해주어예상피해는점점더커질전망이다. 66 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 [ 그림 5-2] 2015 년월별태풍발생현황 ( 청색평년 (1981~2010 년 ), 적색 2015 년월별발생수 ) ( 출처 : 2015 년한반도영향태풍분석보고서, 국가태풍센터 ) 5.2. 기후변화로인한농산물생산및수확량변화 우리나라는지리적으로중위도 ( 북위37도 ) 의사계절이뚜렷하게나타나는온대성기후대에위치한다. 하지만기후변화로인해한반도곳곳에서아열대성기후의징후가나타나고있다. 농촌진흥청에서발표한농작물재배한계선북상지도를통해알수있듯이 ( 그림 5-3), 대부분의작물의재배지가북상하는경향을보이고있다. 특히제일변화가큰녹차의경우, 1980년도에는보성이주요산지였지만 2010년에는남한의북단인강원도고성에서도재배되고있다. 현재우리나라에서아열대지역으로는남해안일대, 제주도, 포항이있다. 하지만기온상승으로인해아열대기후지역이늘어나는추세다. 이와같은기후의변화는농업분야에많은변화를가져오고있다. 난대성식물의분포지는확대되고, 병해충역시아열대성은늘어나고한랭성은줄어든다. 또한과수의재배적지가북상하고기후변화와함께농작물지도도바뀌고있다. 따라서이에대비하여관심이높아지는맞춤형열대와아열대작물에대한기술개발이요구된다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 67
기후는작물의종류와재배시기 생산성 품질등을결정하는요소로서중요한농업자원이라고할수있다. 기후변화가농업부문에미치는영향은기온 강수량 일사량등기후자원변화에따라큰차이를보이기때문에정형화된특성을파악하기가쉽지않다. 기후변화의긍정적인영향으로는작물의생육및재배가능기간의확대, 새로운품종재배가능성의확대, 시설재배농작물의난방비절감등을들수있다. 동시에부정적인영향으로는고온으로인한작물수확량감소및품질저하, 토양유기물의분해촉진으로인한지력저하, 병해충과잡초발생의증가등을들수있다. ( 출처 : 농촌진흥청국립원예특작과학원 ) [ 그림 5-3] 북상하는주요농작물및재배지, 주요어종변화 이밖에도이산화탄소농도가증가하면서광합성작용을촉진한다는측면에서는작물의생장에긍정적이나, 이산화탄소의증가에따른기온상승은작물의생육기간을단축시킬뿐만아니라호흡량을증가시켜생산량을감소시키고농산물의품질을저하시키는결과를가져오게된다. 따라서광합성률이높아도호흡률이높으면생산성증가는기대하지못한다. 또한지나친온도의상승은일시적, 국소적인경우에도식물체 68 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 의대사작용시스템의피해를유발할수있다. 또한온도의상승은토양미생물의증대를야기하고, 토양속유기질의분해가촉진되어토양속에축적된유기물의함량을저하시킨다. 이로인한토양온도상승은토양수분을증발시키고토양내수분을부족하게한다. 지구온난화로인한해수면상승은육지의물의염수화를일으켜식수부족을초래하는데, 이는사람, 농업, 해안생태계에어려움을야기하게된다. 이와같이, 해수면상승과극단적인기상현상의발생빈도및강도의변화가자연생태계의순응력을초과할경우동식물뿐만아니라인간생활에도부정적인영향을끼칠것으로예상된다. 또한강수의극단적인변동으로인하여물부족으로고통을겪는지역이확대되고, 해안침식과해수범람으로인한홍수위험도증가하여대부분의지역에서는결과적으로작물수확량이감소될것으로전망된다. 우리나라도기후변화에따른폭우와폭염등이상기상으로채소류의수급불균형이발생하여단기간의가격급등현상이반복되고있고, 이상기상이빈발함에따라향후농산물가격의불안정이심화될것으로전망된다. 이상기상에따른작황부진으로 2010 년 8월배추가격 (10kg 상품기준 ) 은 6,800원수준이었으나, 2010년 9월에는약 17,800원수준으로약 2.6배급등하였다. 또한 2011년 7월초에는 3,300원수준이었으나, 7월하순경에는 8,000원수준으로약 2.4배급등한것으로나타났다. 또고온에서는농약분해도가높아져서많은양의농약을사용할가능성이있다. 결과적으로기후온난화는농작물생산량의변화를야기한다. 2008년 WHO에서발표된 Protecting Health from Climate Change 에따르면기후변화로인한온도의상승과불안정한강수로인하여많은개발도상지역의작물생산이줄어들것이며, 벼농사에필요한물을빗물에만의존하는몇몇아프리카에서는 2020년까지 20% 이상수확량이줄어들어, 기아와영양상불균형이더욱심해져건강상의문제를야기할것으로예상된다. 뿐만아니라말라리아와식품을매개로한설사병이더욱증가할것으로예상함으로서기후변화에의한영향의심각성을제시하고있다. 또한기후변화는토지이용, 곡물생산측면이나토양미네랄의손실, 토양미생물생태계의변화등토질 (soil quality) 의변화뿐만아니라농식품의가공 운송및저장환경에영향을미쳐곰팡이독소발생량에영향을주는주요요인으로평가되고있다. 곰팡이독소는독성이있는화학물질로서흔히수확전에독소가생성되기시작하고, 곡물 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 69
수확이후에곰팡이가번성하면서독소생성이증가하게된다. 결과적으로기후변화는곰팡이의곡물오염과증식에영향을주게되는데이들의영향을살펴보면곰팡이독소에영향을끼치는인자로는날씨와토양이있으며기후변화는이들생산시스템에변화를초래할수밖에없다. 곰팡이독소는다양한곰팡이로부터생산되고기온 습도 강수와밀접한관계가있다. 5.2.1. 사과 온난화로인해사과재배적지가북상하고있으며, 1970년경북및경남에서재배되던사과는점차주산지가북상하여주로경북지역에서재배되며, 온난화가지속되면사과의생산적지는더욱북쪽아니면고랭지로이동하여야할것이다. 서형호등 (2004) 은사과 후지 를착색을기준으로기온상승정도별재배적지변동을예측하였다. 현재는남부지방과일부해안지대및내륙평야지대와대도시인근을제외한모든지역이사과의기후적재배적지에해당하지만생육기평균기온이 1 상승하게되면재배적지가북상하면서점차축소되며산간지가점차재배적지로변하게된다. 2 상승할경우우리나라대부분지역이사과재배부적지가되는것으로나타났다. 평년 2 상승 [ 그림 5-4] 온난화에의한사과재배적지및부적지변화 ( 출처 ; 열대, 아열대원예산물의수확후특성및선도유지기술개발방향, 황용수, 2015) 70 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 5.2.2. 약용작물농촌진흥청에서기후변화에선제적으로대응하기위해개발한인삼, 당귀, 천궁등주요약용작물의재배지변동예측에따르면기후변화로주요약용작물재배지가줄어들어오는 2090년에는당귀는재배면적이전국토대비 1% 이하로줄어들어국내재배가불가능할것으로, 천궁과인삼도 1%~5% 대로감소하면서이들약재는수입에의존해야할것으로예측됐다. 기후변화로기온이올라간다면, 인삼을비롯한천궁, 당귀는약용작물중고온에취약하기때문에기후변화시생산량과품질, 그리고재배지변동에큰영향을줄수있다. ( 출처 ; 농촌진흥청, 2016) [ 그림 5-5] 기후변화에따른인삼의재배지변동예측결과 5.2.3. 곡물 - 벼열대작물인벼는온도가높아지면재배가능지역은확대되겠지만, 현재곡창지대의소출이늘어날것이라는보장은없다. 기온상승으로인해벼의출수기가일러지게되며, 그로인한등숙기가한여름에해당하여과거에비하여기온이높아질수있다. 이는등숙기간단축을초래하여벼낟알이충분히여물지못한상태에서벼가익는결과를가져와품질이떨어지고수확량도저해될수있다. 또한, 기온이적정수준이상으로올라가면벼의불임이증가할수있다. 기온이 2 상승시 4%, 5 상승시 15% 생산 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 71
량이감소할것으로예측되는데 ( 농촌진흥청, 2008), 이산화탄소와온도가동시에상승할경우, 남부지방에서는수확량이감소하고, 중부지방에서는현상유지를하며, 중산간지대는수량이증가할것으로예측된다 ( 신진철외, 2000). [ 그림 5-6] 기후변화에따른쌀생산량및수입량 ( 출처 ; 농림수산식품기후변화영향분석및영향평가모델구축, 한국농촌경제연구원, 2015) 5.2.4. 채소높은온도를요구하는과채류는현재보다유리할것이지만, 호냉성채소는온도가높아지면재배적지를찾아이동할수밖에없다. 재배에알맞은온도를따라봄채소는지금보다일찍가꾸어야하고, 가을채소는늦게가꾸어야할것이다. 겨울철온도상승은일조부족을초래할수있으며, 고온으로인하여양파 상추 딸기와같은과채류는화아분화가유도되어문제를일으킬수있다. 배추는저온성채소로서생육초기에는고온에비교적잘견디나결구 ( 結球 ) 시기부터고온에약하다. 그러므로이상고온이나타나면생장이정지되어결구되지않으며병충해가많아질수있다 ( 농촌진흥청, 2002). 무도역시서늘한기후에적응한작물로, 72 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 뿌리의경우내서성 ( 耐暑性 ) 과내한성 ( 耐寒性 ) 이강하지못하다. 배추와무는고온이되면병해가많이발생하는작물로최근고온으로인한병의발생이많아지고있는경향이다. 환경부의시나리오보고서에따르면, 오는 2020년에는전국의고랭지배추재배면적이줄어들것으로예상된다. 그양은최근 30년 (1981~2010년) 평균인 132만헥타르의절반이하인 54만 ~97만헥타르까지줄어들것으로예상된다. 5.3. 위협받는식품안전 기후변화에민감한식품군으로는식육또는알가공품, 어육가공품, 즉석섭취식품등이지목된바있다. 이들제품중 7가지대상에대한온도와습도에따른수분활성도와미생물변화를측정한결과, 주요관리인자는온도와저장시간인것으로나타났으며, 이에식품제조, 유통및보관단계에서포장유무에상관없이온도와시간관리가중요한것으로분석되었고, 병원성미생물의관리에있어서는습도또한고려되어야할관리인자로확인되었다 ( 한국보건산업진흥원, 2009). 지구온난화등지역의기후변화 ( 상승 ) 에따른식품안전성문제의원인은온도에민감한위해인자인식중독원인균, 설사성질환의원인미생물, 바이러스등이있다. 이원인균들은기온이상승함에따라식품내발생및오염수준이증가하게되며, 이에식중독발생이증가하게될것으로예상되고있다. 또한이러한기후변화와관련하여식중독발생수준이나양상이급격히변화할것으로예상된다. 특히, 최근에는기후변화문제에대한인식이보다심화되면서기후변화와식중독사고발생과상관관계를되도록과학적근거를바탕으로접근하고해석하고자하는노력이시행되고있다. 기후변화는기온상승, 강수패턴등의변화로식중독원인균의이동경로변경을포함하여다양한식품환경조건에영향을주는것으로알려져있으며, 우리나라도기온상승등기후변화및이상기후현상이다발적으로발생하며, 식품중식중독세균의생태변화를일으킬것으로예상된다. 세균성식중독원인균별에대한기후변화영향에는아직명확한차이가없으며, 지역별기후변화와식중독발생등식품안전의조건사이의상관관계는아직제대로이해되지않은실정이다. 따라서우리나라에서발생할수있는기후변화와관련하여세 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 73
균성식중독원인균발생수준에대한예측모델을이용한기후변화에대한식중독균발생예상이필요하고, 우리나라기후변화에따른세균성식중독원인균의변화에따른식중독발생수준감소를위한관리방안마련이필요한실정이다. 기후변화에민감한미생물학적위해요소에대한최신의식품안전관리기법으로 QMRA (Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment: 정량적미생물위해평가 ) 가제시되고있는데, QMRA는어떤특정병원성미생물에의해오염된식품을섭취하는경우, 그병원성균에의한감염이일어날가능성, 즉위해성 (Risk) 을과학적으로그리고정량적으로평가하는과정으로볼수있다. 즉, QMRA를통해현재의특정식품에서특정식중독원인균에대한발생수준 ( 위해수준 ) 을추정하고, 이를바탕으로이들식품에서특정식중독원인균에대한안전수준을결정할수도있어국제적인식품안전분야에서가장중요하고, 가장과학적인방법으로식품안전평가분야에있어차세대평가기술로인정되고있다. 따라서현재 QMRA는수학적모델의접목으로여러식품위해인자에대한오염수준을가장현실적으로그리고가장과학적으로평가및예측할수있는분야로대두되고있어, 기후변화대비여러식품위해인자에대한관리에있어절대적으로필요한평가기술로인정되고있다. 결론적으로 QMRA는식품의원재료에서제조 유통 보관 판매 소비까지의전과정에서여러식품위해인자의변화를예측하여분석및평가함으로써이들여러식품위해인자를효과적으로제어하고자하는데목적이있는것으로, 이는기후변화에따른다양한식품제조환경의변화에 QMRA가충분히활용가능성이있음을나타내는것이다. 하지만아직까지는기후변화와관련하여과학적근거및경험적, 실험적자료를바탕으로정량화한자료의축적이나분석은많이이루지지못한실정으로우선적으로는우리나라기후변화에대비하여어떤식품이보다민감하고이식품류에서는어떤식중독세균이중요한의미를가지고있는지를파악하여야할것이다. 5.4. 기후변화에대비한위생관리프로그램 식품의약품안전처기후변화대응식품안전관리연구사업단에서는기후변화에따른식품의안전성을확보하고자기후변화시뮬레이션을통한식중독세균, 기생충, 바이러스, 곰팡이독소, 마비성패독, 농약, 동물성의약품, 중금속, 식품첨가물, 이물등생물학 74 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 적 화학적 물리적식품위해인자들의영향을분석하고생물학적 / 화학적신속검출법개발연구를병행하여기후변화에대응한사전예측관리방안을마련한바있다. 해당보고서에는기후변화시나리오를적용한식중독세균, 기생충, 바이러스, 곰팡이독, 마비성패독, 해양병원세균등의예측모델을개발하였고, 동물성의약품, 농약, 중금속등은메타분석을통하여안전관리방안을제시하였다. 또한, 우리나라뿐만아니라주요식품수입국인중국, 미국및일본의기후변화동향도조사하였다. 주요식품생산국의곡류생산성은점차감소할전망이었으며, 이로인한농약과 GMO의사용이증가할것으로예상되었다. 주요수입대상국의생산량감소로식품안전이검증되지않은동남아시아나남미로부터의수입이증가할가능성이내포되고있어, 수입식품안전관리체계의개선이필요할것으로파악되었다. 극단적인기후변동에관련된정보를포함한수입식품이력추적시스템도입과수입식품검사체계의개선이필요한것으로파악되었다. 기후변화로인한식중독등식품안전을확보하기위한사전예방적관리체계구축은유럽의 RASFF와 WHO의 INFOSAN과효과적으로연계가가능하며, 우리나라도식품환경에맞는조기경보시스템 (Early Warning System) 의도입이절실히필요하다. 기후변화로인한신규위해인자를과학적 체계적으로관리하기위해서는신규위해평가 (Emerging Risk Assessment), 국내외전문가네트워크구축및위해정보교류가활성화되어야하며, 식품안전담당기관및전문가들간의총체적 (Holistic approach), 다학재협동 (Multidiscriptional approach) 연구가필수적인요건이다. 5.5. 기후변화에따른농업경쟁력확보 기후변화에대비하여수확후관리기술을확보해야한다. 일반적으로 수확후관리 란수확된농산물이생산자의손을떠나최종소비자에게도달되는전과정에서신선도를유지하고부패를방지함으로써품질을높이고손실을줄이며, 유통판매기간 (shelf life) 을연장시키기위한목적으로수행하는각종조치들을총칭하는말이다. 최근이상기후로농산물재배환경이불안정하여예측불허의병해증가와해충발생으로수량감소가커안정수급에지장을초래할수있다. 이를방지하기위해예컨대, 청과물의경우신선도유지를위해수확후예냉조치를 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 75
취해저온저장상태에서관리된농산물이상온상태에서운송되고, 판매가이루어질경우오히려상품가치가떨어지기때문에예냉처리된농산물은저장 수송 판매의모든과정에서저온유통시스템에의한통합적 시스템적관리가필요하다. 이를위해현 ) 농림축산식품부는 2011년에 [ 농림수산식품분야기후변화대응기본계획 (2011~2020)] 을발표하여시행하고있다. 목표 기온ㆍ CO 2 농도ㆍ강수량증가가농작물생육에미치는영향평가 재해 ( 폭염, 호우, 태풍 ), 고온및병해충에강한품종ㆍ종자개발 기후변화의영향이상대적으로작은시설재배에대한지원확대 유기질비료지원확대 ( 11: 250 만톤 15: 300) 및광역친환경농업단지조성 ('11: 34 개소 '15: 60) 을통해화학비료사용저감 기후변화에대응한주요곡물의안정적공급체계조기구축 온난화영향대비재배기술개발 ( 농림수산식품부, 2012) < 표 5-1> 농림수산식품분야기후변화영향및대응계획 내용 지역별, 품종별, 생육시기별로피해양상과원인을밝히고, 이를통해예측모델개발및안전재배지대를설정 벼 ( 내재해 내병충성 ), 무배추 ( 내고온성 ), 사과 ( 고온착색우수 ), 배 ( 저온둔감형 ) 등품목별맞춤형신품종개발 고수익작물 ( 토마토, 파프리카등 ) 을중심으로온실제어시스템, 양액재배등시설현대화지원및고추등기후변화에취약한작물을중심으로시설재배전환지원 광역친환경농업단지 : 축산과경종을연계한 600ha 이상대규모의자원순환형단지로가축분뇨로유기질비료를생산하고, 농업부산물을가축에다시이용 쌀이외에밀 콩 옥수수등비축대상확대및해외농업개발진출기업지원강화 금융시장 ( 선물등 ) 활용 온난화영향으로제주및남부지방이아열대기후대로진입함에따라망고, 아보카도, 패션프루트등새로운열대 아열대소득작물발굴및재배기술개발 농업은기후영향을많이받는업종으로예기치못한기후변화에따라크고작은수요및공급의불균형이생길확률이높다. 최근전세계적으로지속적인인구증가 (2050년세계인구 90억명전망, UN) 와기후변화및식재료의바이오에너지원료로의이전으로식량부족현상이심해지고있다. 따라서각국가별로식량안보대비를위해종자산업특히종자개량연구분야확대가요구된다. 76 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 종자산업은기술집약적고부가가치산업으로미래성장의동력원이된다. 종자개량산업은생산량증대가주요목적인 1세대기술, 영양소를강화한기능성을강조한 2세대기술, 천연작물로부터의약성분이첨가된작물을개발하는것이주요목적인 3세대기술로진행되어왔다. 선진국을포함한세계각국에서는유전자원확보및품종보호권을확보하기위해산학계의연구개발을실시하고있고경쟁또한치열하다. 주로바이엘, 몬산토, 듀폰, 바스프등대형기업들은콩, 밀, 옥수수등대량생산품종의유전자변형기술개발에집중하고있다. 또한일부채소및과일류와같이소량규모로생산되는품목의개발은최근에서야조명을받게되고이러한작물의종자 농약사업에일본기업이참여하고있다. 향후종자개발시장특성상진입장벽이낮은품종을대상으로한종자개량연구및개발에참여하는기업들이많아질수있다. 우리나라는그림 5-7 및그림 5-8에서알수있듯이, 종자수출량 (630 톤 ) 에비해수입량 (2970 톤 ) 이약 5배정도많은것을알수있다. 그만큼종자를수입에의존하고있는추세다. 따라서기업뿐만이아니라국가적차원에서종자개량이필요하다. 또한뒤늦게종자시장에진입하는만큼신중해야하고우리나라자체의지리적이점을이용하여접근해야한다. 우리나라는예로부터천연작물을이용해의약용으로써왔고전통적으로한의학등한방의학이발달했다. 또한좁은국토지만온대성기후의영향으로사계절이뚜렷해서다양한생물자원을보유하고있다. 앞서언급한이점을바탕으로종자개량시장에진출해야할것이다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 77
( 출처 : International Seed Federation) [ 그림 5-7] 2013 년주요국가별수출종자산업규모 ( 출처 : International Seed Federation) [ 그림 5-8] 2013 년주요국가별수입종자산업규모 78 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 5.6. 기후변화에따른식품산업에서의경쟁력확보 식품산업이기후변화에의해영향을받지만, 식품산업또한기후변화에영향을주는부분이있다. 식품가공에서발생하는이산화탄소가바로그것이다. 이에대체가공기술로이산화탄소저감화기술이연구되고있고, 기후변화에따른식품안전확보를위한관리기술과기후변화에맞춘위생관리프로그램을개발하여식품산업에서의경쟁력을확보하는것이중요하다. 기존의고에너지소비식품가공기술을대체할수있는새로운위해인자제어공정으로서과산화수소증기살균기술, 전자선조사기술, 광펄스살균기술들이개발되고있다. 과산화수소증기살균기술과전자선조사기술은각각신선채소류와포장제품의보관및유통공정중에위해인자를효과적으로저감화하는기술이고, 광펄스살균기술은가공용수로사용되는지하수의노로바이러스를효과적으로저감화하는데적용가능한기술이다. 유지식품산업에서무-트랜스지방및식품유화제를생산할때기존의고에너지소비화학적반응을대체할수있는효소생물전환공정등이개발되어있다. 또한기후변화로인해식품사고와질병을유발할수있는해충의식품유입을방지할수있는기술도연구되어지고있다. 천연방충물질을함유한미세캡슐접착제를종이상자포장재제조공정중적용함으로써, 박스의외 내부 골판지틈새및실제식품속으로의해충유입을방지하는기술이다. 이렇듯기후변화에대비하여식품산업에서의경쟁력을갖추기위한기술들이지속적으로연구되어져야한다. < 문제해결에필요한과학기술 > (1) 기후변화에따른재배지변화로농작물변경에대한농업인교육및재배기술개발 (2) QMRA (Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment: 정량적미생물위해평가 ) 의표준화를위한 database 마련 (3) 기후변화를가속화시키는기존의식품가공기술을대체할수있는그린가공공정기술개발 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 79
참고문헌기상청, 기상연보, (1990-2015) 이종경, 신호성, 기후온난화가식품안전에미치는영향-FAO 보고서를중심으로, Safe Food, (2009) 농촌진흥청, 북상하는주요작물재배지, 국립원예특작과학원, (2015) 연합뉴스, 농작물지도가바뀐다. 2070년엔한반도절반이아열대기후, (2015) 국가태풍센터, 한반도영향태풍분석보고서 (2015) 김은정, 윤수진, 권영관, 자개발 R&D 기술사업화생태계활성화연구, 한국기술혁신학회 (2014) 김석호, Golden Seed 프로젝트소개, 과학기술정책 (2013) Vegetable seed exports, International Seed Federation (2013) Vegetable seed imports, International Seed Federation (2013) 김창길, 기후변화가농업경제에미치는영향, 기상기술정책 (2009) 농촌진흥청, 주요약용작물의재배지변동예측결과 (2016) 한국농촌경제연구원, 농림수산식품기후변화영향분석및영향평가모델구축 (2015) 윤성호, 기후변화와농업생산의전망과대책, 한국농림기상학회지 (2001) 황용수, 열대 아열대원예산물의수확후특성및선도유지기술개발방향, 충남대학교, (2015) 김창길, 기후변화와농업부문대응전략, 한국농촌경제연구원 (2010) 김창길, 기후변화와농업부문대응과제, 한국농촌경제연구원 (2012) 김창길, 농림수산식품기후변화영향분석및영향평가모델구축, 한국농촌경제연구원 (2015) 기후변화사업단, 기후변화대응식품안전관리연구, 식품의약품안전처 (2014) 한국보건산업진흥원, 식품의약품안전청, 기후변화에따른식중독발생영향분석및관리체계연구 (2009) 김정선, 정기혜, 신호성, 정진욱, 윤시몬, 김은정, 국제기후변화에따른식품안전관리대책추진방안 (2008) 신진철, 기후변화에따른작물생산성반응과기술적대응. 한국작물학회 한국농림기상학회 한국농업정보과학회공동학술발표회.(2000) 80 한국과학기술한림원
5 장. 기후변화와한국농업의전망 농업분야기후변화대책추진현황. 국회기후변화대책특별위원회업무보고자료 : 농촌진흥청. (2008) IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 81
6 장 생명공학기술의활용과전망 지구온난화와글로벌무역자유화시대에전통적인농업시스템으로는한국농업이생존할수없다는위기감이확산되고있다. 세계무역기구 (WTO) 에의한한국쌀시장개방이현실화되고있으며농업강국들과의자유무역협정 (FTA) 체결로우리농산물의판로가크게축소되고있다. 이러한상황에서한국농업이살길은첨단농업생명공학기술을과감히수용하고궁극적으로는세계를선도할수있는생명공학원천기술을개발하는것이다. 창조농업혁신의근간은첨단생명공학기술을이용하여지구온난화에의한기후변화를극복하고생산성을향상하여지속가능한고소득농업경영을달성하는것이다. 그러나생명공학신품종 (GMO) 의안전성에대한일부소비자들의부정적인인식과불안감이농업혁신을가로막는걸림돌로작용하고있다. OECD 국가들중에서최하위의식량자급률에머물러있는한국은생명공학기술과친환경농업의상반된갈등속에갇혀농업발전의길을찾지못하고있다. 생명공학연구개발을위한수준높은인적자원과기술수준을확보하고있음에도식량안보에대한위기의식을느끼지못하는국민과정부의의지부족으로효과적인정보전달과소통에실패하여농업분야의기술혁신을이루지못하고정부의식량농업정책은방향을잡지못하고있다. 6.1. 세계의생명공학신품종재배현황 1996년유전자변형농작물이재배되어처음상업화된이래생명공학신품종의재배면적은급속히늘어나고있다. 2014년전세계의생명공학신품종재배면적은 1억8,150 만ha로전년도보다약 630만ha 증가했으며신품종재배가시작된 1996년의 170만ha 보다 100배이상증가하였다.( 그림 6-1) 2014년현재전세계 28개국에서 1,800만명의농민이생명공학신품종을재배하고있다. 생명공학작물이이와같이빠른속도로전세계에서재배면적을넓혀나가는이유는농업노동력을크게줄이고적은농약으로많 82 한국과학기술한림원
6 장. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 은수량을얻을수있기때문이다. 유럽의과학자단체가 147개연구논문을메타분석하여발표한최근의보고서에의하면지난 18년간의생명공학신품종재배로수확량은 22% 증가했고, 농약사용은 37% 감소했으며, 농가수익은 68% 증가했다고한다. 또한산업선진국보다개발도상국의수확량및소득증가가더높은것으로나타났다 (Klumper and Qaim, 2014). 현재전세계에서재배되는생명공학신품종은콩, 옥수수, 면화, 카놀라가주류를이루고있다. 이중 GM콩의재배면적이가장넓어전체생명공학신품종재배면적의 49% 를차지하며그다음이옥수수로 33%, 면화가 14%, 카놀라가 5% 를차지하고있다 (2013년기준 ). 콩의경우세계전체콩재배면적의 79% 인 8,450만ha에서생명공학신품종콩이재배되고있다. 이것은미국을비롯하여브라질, 아르헨티나등대규모영농으로콩을수출하는나라들이 GM콩을재배하기때문이다. 생명공학신품종옥수수는세계옥수수재배면적의 32% 에달하는 5,740만ha에서재배되고있다. GM면화는세계전체면화재배면적의 70% 에서, GM카놀라는세계전체카놀라재배면적의 24% 에서재배되고있다. (Source: Clive James, 2014) [ 그림 6-1] 세계 GM 작물재배면적변화추이 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 83
한국이주로식량을수입해오는미국의경우 2014년도생명공학신품종채택율은콩의경우 94%, 옥수수 93%, 카놀라 94% 이다. 미국은생물다양성을유지하고생태계교란을최소화하기위해 GM작물재배자는경작지의 10% 내외에 non-gm 작물을심도록의무화하고있는것을감안하면미국농부들은가용토지에생명공학신품종을 100% 경작하고있음을알수있다 ( 박수철외, 2015). 최근미국과학한림원 (NAS) 은공학한림원, 의학한림원과공동으로지난 20년간미국에서재배가승인되고식용으로사용한생명공학신품종이환경과인체에어떠한영향을주었는지에대한광범위한연구를수행했다. 이연구에는 70여명의연구자들이참여했으며 900여편의논문과자료를검토하여총 380여쪽에달하는방대한보고서가출판되었다 (NAS, 2016). 유전자변형작물 : 경험과전망 (Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects) 이라는이보고서는현재시중에서판매되는 GM식품은안전하고먹어도아무런문제가없다고결론지었다. 특히일부 GMO 반대자들이주장하는 GMO와암, 비만, 신장병, 자폐증, 알러지유발등의인체영향은과학적인증거가없음을확인하였다. 이보고서는또한그동안세계여러과학자단체와유럽연합위원회까지도생명공학신품종의안전성을확인한보고서들을발표한것을소개하고있다. 이와같이 GMO의안전성이전세계적으로인정되고그사용이보편화되고있는마당에우리나라에서유독이문제가정치이슈화로비화되는조짐을보이고있다. 6.2. 국내 GM 작물개발현황 우리나라는 2001년부터시작된작물기능유전체사업과바이오그린21사업을통한농업생명공학연구활성화로생명공학신품종연구개발건수가급속증가하면서형질전환기술, 유전자개발기술등주요기술력을확보하기시작했다. 2011년출범한차세대바이오그린21사업을통해농업생명공학분야의본격적인추격형연구가시작되었다. 농약사용량을줄이면서해충피해를방지할수있는해충저항성벼등 1세대생명공학작물개발에성공하였다. 이와함께비타민A 성분이보강된황금쌀과함께시력개선및노화방지용컬러쌀등소비자에게혜택을주는 2세대생명공학작물의개발도순차적으로성공을거두었다 ( 박수철외, 2015). 미래기후변화에대비한가뭄저항성작물개발도좋은성과를거두었는데, 김주곤교 84 한국과학기술한림원
6 장. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 수가개발한가뭄저항성벼의경우그우수성을인정받아외국종자회사들로부터기술이전을계약하는성과를거두는등글로벌종자시장진출의가능성도확인한바있다. 이밖에도조혈촉진제생산작물, 간염바이러스예방용백신작물등 3세대생명공학작물도활발히연구가진행되는등미래생명공학작물기술경쟁력확보를위한노력도꾸준히진행되고있다이러한연구노력의결과 2014년현재우리나라전체로약 20작물 200여종의생명공학신품종이개발되고있는것으로추정되고있다. 농촌진흥청의경우현재까지약 17 작물 180종을개발중에있으나상업용보다는유전자의기능검정등연구용생명공학작물이대부분이다. 6.2.1. 상업용 GM작물개발현황 2014년현재농촌진흥청 GM작물개발사업단에서향후국내상용화를대비하여개발중인생명공학작물은총 13작물 58종이다 ( 표 6-1). 주요대상작물은벼, 콩, 배추, 고추와함께감자, 고구마, 화훼류등이다. 목표형질은병 해충저항성, 불량환경내성등생산성보존과농약및노동력절감형과함께품질고급화및신기능부여를통한소비자요구충족형도개발중이다. 이와함께산업소재생산이가능한고부가생명공학작물등농산물의가치향상과소비촉진과함께새로운바이오산업소재개발을위한노력도진행중이다. 이들은특허권최소화, 도입유전자의독성및알레르기유발가능성사전검토등개발초기단계부터실용화와안전성심사기준에맞게새롭게제작되고있으며, 단계별철저한정밀검정을통해안전성평가에투입가능한적격생명공학작물로육성중에있다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 85
< 표 6-1> 국내용으로개발중인상업용생명공학작물 목표형질 대상작물 벼콩배추고추 화훼류 * (5 작물 ) 기타 ** (4 작물 ) 합계 (13 작물 ) 불량환경내성 9 1 2 3 3 18 병 해충저항성 5 3 2 2 6 1 19 생산성 6 1 1 8 품질 / 기능성 4 1 2 4 2 13 계 24 6 6 2 13 7 58종 * 화훼류 : 국화, 장미, 카네이션, 백합, 난 ** 기타 : 감자, 토마토, 마늘, 사료작물 GM작물개발사업단에서는생명공학작물상용화기술기반구축및성공사례도출을위해, 현재까지개발된유용신품종중에서안전성심사기준을충족시키는최종후보인 4종을선발하여안전성평가를실시하고현재안전성심사서작성을준비중에있다. 안전성평가및안전성심사를추진중인생명공학신품종 4종은제초제저항성잔디, 오이모자이크바이러스저항성고추, 가뭄저항성벼, 레스베라트롤생산고부가쌀이다 ( 이철호외, 2015). 6.3. 생명공학신품종의안전성평가 유전자변형에의한신품종 (GMO) 의안전성평가는환경위해성평가와식품안전성평가로이루어진다. 경제협력개발기구 (OECD) 는 생명공학의규제조화를위한실무그룹회의 에서과학적근거에기반한유전자변형생물체에대한위해성평가기준, 방법, 제도등의내용을담은합의보고서를채택했다. 생물다양성협약의부속의정서로 2000년 1월에채택된바이오안전성의정서는 LMO(Living Modified Organisms) 의국가간이동으로인해발생할수있는인체위해및환경위해를방지하기위한국제적원칙을규정하고있다. 86 한국과학기술한림원
6 장. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 6.3.1. 생명공학신품종의환경위해성평가생명공학신품종에대해일반인들은생명공학작물이환경또는자연생태계를교란시켜생물의다양성을파괴하고, 슈퍼잡초의탄생및내성곤충의조기출현가능성, 생명공학작물의잡초화가능성, 신품종에도입된유전자가야생종및토양미생물과같은다른생물종으로전이될가능성등을우려하고있다. 이러한환경위해성에대한논란을잠재우고안전성을확보하기위해, 생명공학신품종개발자의자발적인안전성검사와함께세계각국의정부는객관적인안전성을확보하기위해제도적인장치를마련하여규제및관리를하고있다. 새로운유전자가도입된생물체의종류와방출환경에따라환경에대한영향은매우다르므로기존의농약이나의약품과같은화학물질에대한환경위해성평가와는달리생명공학신품종의환경위해성평가에는사안별평가 (case-by-case) 시스템을적용하고있다. 우리나라는 2002년 1월농림부고시제2002-2호로 유전자변형농산물의환경위해성평가심사지침 을고시하고, 농촌진흥청을생명공학신품종의환경위해성심사기관으로지정하여, 2003년 9월부터외국으로부터국내에수입되는모든식품및사료용생명공학신품종에대해환경위해성심사를진행하고있다. 환경위해성심사가이루어진생명공학신품종은모두식품, 사료, 가공용으로서국내에서는재배및생산하지않는다는조건이붙어있다. 그림 6-2는국내심사절차를도식화한것이며한건당대개 2-3년의심사평가기간이소요된다. 2014년 12월말기준으로 5개작물인콩, 옥수수, 면화, 카놀라, 알팔파에대해총 104건이승인되었다 ( 박수철외, 2015). IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 87
[ 그림 6-2] 우리나라의생명공학신품종의환경위해성심사절차 6.3.2. 생명공학신품종의식품안전성평가 1993년경제개발협력기구 (OECD) 는생명공학신품종유래식품의안전성평가의기본개념과원리를수립하고 실질적동등성 (substantial equivalence) 원리에따라 OECD 회원국인미국, EU, 일본등을중심으로안전성평가제도를정착해나갔다. 2003년 7월세계보건기구 (WHO) 와농업식량기구 (FAO) 산하의국제식품규격위원회 (Codex Alimentarius Commission, CODEX) 는 현대생명공학유래식품의위해도분석을위한원칙, 과 재 88 한국과학기술한림원
6 장. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 조합-DNA 식물유래식품의안전성평가실시에관한가이드라인 등을 CODEX 총회에서채택함으로써생명공학신품종의식품안전성평가에대한국제적으로합의된지침을마련하였다. 우리나라는미국, EU, 일본등에이어 1999년부터식품의약품안전처가유전자변형식품의안전성평가제도를운영하기시작했다. 2004년부터는식품위생법으로안전성평가를의무화하여안전성심사를통해생명공학신품종이기존의작물과비교하여안전성과영양성면에서동등하여식품으로적합하다고사전에심사승인된경우에만국내유통되도록하고있다. 안전성평가를받지않은제품이혼입된경우식품위생법제4조 5항에의해수입판매등이금지된다. 우리나라의안전성평가심사는과학적이고객관적인평가방법을따르며, CODEX에서 2003년제정한원칙과가이드라인을준용하고있다. [ 그림 6-3] 식품용생명공학신품종의안전성평가심사절차 안전성평가심사업무는과학적접근법에따라이뤄져야하며, 심사의전문성, 객관성, 투명성을확보하기위해각분야의전문가에의한자료검토가이뤄질수있도록 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 89
유전자변형식품등안전성평가자료심사위원회 를구성하여심사자료를검토하고있다. 이심사위원회는각분야별 ( 식품일반, 분자생물학, 독성, 알레르기, 영양 ) 전문가 20명으로구성되어있다. 제출된모든자료를근거로심사위원회의에서신품종의안전성에대한결론이나면최종승인여부를결정하기전에심사결과보고서를일반인에게온라인상으로공개하여의견수렴과정을거침으로써심사의공정성과투명성, 신뢰성을확보할수있도록하고있다. 안전성평가심사절차를도식화하면그림 6-3과같으며, 심사기간은안전성평가를신청받은날로부터 270일이내에심사를완료하도록되어있다. 2014년 12월 31일자기준으로식품의약품안전처에서안전성심사를거쳐식용으로허가된유전자변형작물은총 122품목으로그중 GM콩 20품목, GM옥수수 64품목, GM면화 21품목, GM카놀라 11품목, GM감자 4품목, GM사탕무 1품목, GM알팔파 1품목이승인되었다 ( 박수철외, 2015). 6.4. 생명공학기술에대한소비자인식 한국바이오안전성정보센터는 2008년 LMO법이발효된후부터 GMO에대한대국민인식조사를수행해왔다. 그결과를보면 GMO는인체에해로운영향을미칠것 이라고생각하는사람은전체의 58.6%(2008), 49.0%(2009), 46.7%(2010) 으로점차낮아지다가 2011년에는다시 49.9% 로높아졌다. 이것은최근일부시민단체들이소비자의알권리를내세워 GM식품표시확대를주장하는캠페인을벌이는것과무관하지않다. GMO에대한규제를강화하고표시를확대할필요가있다고생각하는사람은전체의 90% 수준을꾸준히유지하고있다.( 한국바이오안전성정보센터, 2012) 우리나라소비자들이식품을구입할때우선적으로고려하는사항은원산지 (42.8%), 유통기한 (25.2%), 맛 (10.8%), 가격 (9.4%), 영양가치 (8.2%) 순으로조사되었다. 원산지와유통기한은품질과안전성에관한사항이므로소비자들이식품을구입할때가장중요하게생각하는것은식품의안전성이라는것을알수있다. 우리국민이 GMO에관한정보를획득하는경로는언론매체 (82.9%), 시민단체 (8.2%) 로언론매체의역할이대단히중요함을알수있고, 신뢰하는정보제공처로는시민단체 (37.6%), 과학자및학계 (26.9%), 언론매체 (26.5%), 정부기관 (6.2%) 의순으로나타났다. 90 한국과학기술한림원
6 장. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 최근의소비자연맹조사결과에의하면 2011년부터 2015년까지일반인의유전자변형작물에대한인지도는큰차이가없는것으로나타났다. 유전자변형농산물이식량부족사태해결에도움을주는가하는질문에대해 37.4% 의소비자만이 그렇다 고응답하였다. 국립농업과학원의유사한조사결과를보면유전자변형작물이인류식량부족사태해결에도움을준다는데 동의한다 가 2011년 46.2%, 2012년 39.8%, 2013년 13.9% 로점점부정적으로변하고있다. 소비자연맹의 2014년조사에서는 GMO에관심이있는이유가 식량위기에대응할대안이라서 가 10.9% 로조사된바있다. 최근연구에서조사된 37.4% 는국립농업과학원의 2012년응답율과거의유사한수준이어서소비자인식의확산이이루어지지는않고답보상태인것을알수있다 ( 이철호외, 2015). GMO에대한불안감과공포심을조장하는근원지는그린피스같은국제반GMO조직들이며그들은거짓된낭설을대단히과학적인것처럼포장하여각지역의운동단체에제공하고있다. 세계과학계에서잘못된연구결과로또는조작된낭설로판명되어이미폐기된괴담들과확인되지않은피해사례들을모아공포다큐영화 (GMO 룰렛 ) 를만들어전세계에배포하고있다. 최근노벨상수상자 100여명이 GMO 반대운동의진원지로알려진국제환경단체그리피스에대해거짓된캠페인을중단할것을촉구하는성명서를발표했다. 국제식량정책연구소장을역임하고세계식량상 (World Food Prize) 수상자인덴마크출신핀스트럽앤더슨박사는이러한다국적단체들의무책임한행동을처벌하는국제적합의가필요한단계라고역설하고있다. 우리나라에서도이런거짓된선전으로국민에게 GMO에대한공포감을확산시키는행위를근절할방법에대해논의해야할때이다. 6.5. 한국농업생명공학기술의향후과제 농업혁신의근간은첨단생명공학기술을이용하여지구온난화에의한기후변화를극복하고우리농산물의품질과생산성을향상하여지속가능한고소득농업경영을달성하는것인데, 우리의현실은일부소비자들의부정적인인식과불안감으로기술혁신을이룰수없는상황에놓여있다. 중국은생명공학에의한신품종개발을국가중점연구개발사업으로채택하여이미충분한국제경쟁력을확보하였으며, 이로써다국적종자기업들의독점적시장진입을막고자체개발한생명공학작물재배로농업혁신을 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 91
선도하고있다. 우리나라는생명공학연구개발을위한수준높은인적자원을가지고있으며지난 30여년의연구성과로우리농업과국민에게도움이되는다수의생명공학신품종을개발해놓고있으나합리적절차를통한실용화노력도추진할수없는상황에놓여있다. 이것은우리농업의어려움과식량안보에대한위기의식을느끼지못하는국민과정부의의지부족이며효과적인정보전달과소통에실패한결과이다. 지금이상태가계속되면우리는필연적으로농업분야에서생명공학후진국으로전락하고다국적기업들의종자에의존하는농업종속국이될것이다. 이러한사태를미연에방지하기위하여우리과학계와정부는생명공학에의한창조농업혁신을위한특단의다음과같은대책을세워야한다 ( 이철호외, 2015). (1) 우리나라과학계는과학적판단에근거한생명공학신품종의안전성에대해올바른정보전달과소통에적극적으로나서야한다. (2) 초중등과학교과서에기재되어있는 GMO에대한부정적서술을과학에근거한정확한정보로수정해야한다. (3) 정부는생명공학기술의이용에대한현재의소극적인자세에서과감히탈피하여이미개발된생명공학신품종의실용화를적극적으로추진해야한다. (4) 정부는생명공학신기술에대한과감한연구개발투자로생명공학기술의선도적지위를확보하는데노력을집중해야한다. (5) 생명공학기술을활용한농업혁신으로식량안보를확보하고발전적인식량생산체제를유지하기위하여식량자급률목표를정하고관리하는가칭 식량안보법 제정이필요하다. < 문제해결에필요한과학기술 > (1) 유전자변형기술에대한소비자불안감을해소하여농업생명공학의활용촉진 (2) 유전자가위 (genome editing) 등신기술개발로미래식량문제해결 92 한국과학기술한림원
6 장. 생명공학기술의활용과전망 참고문헌박수철, 김해영, 이철호, GMO 바로알기, 도서출판식안연 (2015) 이철호, 유장렬, 문헌팔, 박현진, 곽상수, 이향기, 박수철, 김주곤, 이숙종, 생명공학수용을통한한국농업혁신정책방안, 한림연구보고서 101, 한국과학기술한림원 (2015) 한국바이오안전성정보센터, 유전자변형콩이야기 (2012) James, C., Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops:: 2014. ISAAA Brief No. 49. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, Ithaca, NY.( 2014) Klumper W. and Qaim M., A Meta-analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops, PLoS ONE 9(11):e111629.doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0111629 National Academy of Sciences, Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. The National Academies Press, Washington DC, USA (2016) OECD, Consensus documents on BIOSAFETY (Environmental safety) (http://www.oecd.org/science/biotrack/) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Montreal, 29 January 2000 IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 93
7 장 사회구조변화와국민교육 7.1. 중요성 세계인구증가에따르는식량및영양문제는인류가해결해야할가장시급한과제로대두되고있으며, UN의 Millenium Development Goals(MDG, 새천년개발목표 ) 2015 에서도제1번목표로 Eradicate Extreme Poverty & Hunger ( 극심한가난및굶주림제거 ) 가제시되었고, 2016년 9월에 UN총회에서채택된 Sustainable Development Goals(SDG, 지속가능개발목표 ) 17개중에서도역시 No Poverty 와 Zero Hunger 가 1,2번목표로제시되어있다. 우리나라의인구는 2016년 8월 27일현재약 5,080만명이나젊은이들의결혼기피, 만혼, 낮은합계출산율 (2015년, 1.24명 ) 등의이유로곧정점을찍고 2050년에는 4,234만명으로감소할것으로예상되고있다. 비록세계추세와는달리우리나라의인구는완만히감소할것으로예상되고는있으나산업화 도시화에따르는경지면적의감소, 이농현상등으로농촌인구는전체인구보다더급속히감소하고있으며인구의고령화현상도훨씬심각하다. 이에따라낮은식량자급률 ( 현재곡물자급률 23%) 에더하여농업의기반자체가붕괴하는것이아닐까걱정스럽기까지하다. 이장에서는인구감소, 산업화 도시화등사회구조변화가농업에미치는영향과문제점을파악하고이에대한대책과이를극복하기위한국민교육방안을제시하고자한다. 7.2. 현황과문제점 7.2.1. 세계인구증가추세 세계인구는 2015년 72.3억명에서 2050년에는 97.3억명으로약 34.5% 증가할것으로예상되며, 이에따르는식량수요는육류소비의증가등식단의변화로말미암아인구증가율을훨씬뛰어넘어현재의 2배가될것으로추정되고있다. 94 한국과학기술한림원
7 장. 사회구조변화와국민교육 < 표 7-1> 세계인구증가추세 ( 단위 : 억명 ) 연도 2000 2016 2020 2030 2040 2050 인구 60.6 72.3 77.6 85.8 91.6 97.3 7.2.2. 우리나라인구추세 우리나라인구는 2016년현재 5,080만명에서 2050년에는 4,234만명으로감소할것으로예상된다. < 표 7-2> 우리나라인구추세와고령화비율 연도 2000 2014 2020 2030 2040 2050 인구 ( 만명 ) 4,701 5,042 4,933 4,864 4,634 4,234 노인 ( 만명 )* 334 641 770 1,181 1,504 1,616 노령화비율 (%) 7.2 12.7 15.6 24.3 32.5 38.2 * 65 세이상 표 7-2에서보다시피절대인구는감소하는반면노령화는급속히증가함으로써생산가능인구가감소하여경제전반에악영향을끼칠것으로우려된다. 7.2.3. 농업인구의감소및고령화우리나라의농가인구는 2010년 306만명, 2013년 285만명, 2014년 275만명, 2017년 253 만명 ( 추정치 ) 로꾸준히감소하고있다. 농업가구수도 2010년 117만 3천여호, 2013년 114 만 2천여호, 2014년 112만 1천호로역시같은추세로감소하고있다. 이에반해농촌인구의고령화비율은 2010년 31.8%, 2013년 37.3%, 2021년 45.6%( 추정치 ) 로급격하게증가하고있다. 2014년도를기준으로농업에종사하는가구수, 인구, 총인구대비비율, 노령화비율등은다음표와같다. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 95
총인구 ( 만명 ) 농업가구농가인구 < 표 7-3> 농업인구통계 가구당평균가족수 총인구대비 (%) 노령화율 (%) 5,042 1,120,776 2,751,792 2.46 5.46 39.0 이표를보면농업가구당평균가족수는 2.46명으로평균적으로볼때가구구성원은부부또는부부와다른가족 1명정도이며, 노령화율은 39.0% 로서표2의전체인구에대한노령화율 12.7% 에비해 3배이상으로월등히높은것을알수있다. 7.2.4. 경작지면적변화추이 논 밭등경작지면적은산업화 도시화등의영향으로꾸준히감소하고있다. < 표 7-4> 논 밭경지면적 ( 단위 : 1000 ha) 연도 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2014 2015 면적 1,876 1,836 1,782 1,715 1,711 1,696 1,679 7.2.5. 다문화가정 2014년기준으로농업에종사하는다문화가정은 14,697 가구에 66,156명으로가구당가족수는 4.5명으로일반농가의가구당가족수의거의 2배이다. 이수치는농촌인구중어린아이들은대부분이다문화가정아이들임을암시하고있다. 7.3. 해결방안및정책과제 우리나라의농업은일부특수작물을제외하고는그규모로볼때세계시장에서경쟁력을갖추기가어려운것이부정할수없는사실이다. 그러나식량안보측면에서, 또농촌은일반국민들의정신적고향이고, 농업은우리국민의생존에직결되는산업임을감안할때경제성만을따질수없는것도또한사실이다. 이에앞에서열거한문제점들에대한몇가지대책을제시하고자한다. 96 한국과학기술한림원
7 장. 사회구조변화와국민교육 7.3.1. 이농현상방지와귀농촉진농촌에정주하기를꺼려이농하는사람들과귀농을망설이는사람들이공통으로지적하는것이생활여건의미비인데, 대표적인것들로의료, 교육, 접근성등을들수있다. - 의료 : 병 의원의도시집중과농어촌기피및농촌인구의고령화등에따르는수요를감안하여보건소의인력보강과장비확충. 비교적단순하고치료가쉬운질병과노인성만성병에대한원격진료체계의도입. - 가축의료 : 개 고양이등도시반려동물에집중되는수의사 동물병원등에못지않게농촌에서닭 오리등의가금류, 소 돼지등대동물을다루는수의사와동물병원에대한적절한지원. - 교육 : 농 어촌및도시지역아동들에대한거주지역내또는근거리의초등 중등교육환경유지. - 취업 : 농촌에농산물관련또는비관련산업을유치하여농업외소득원을개발함으로써청년들의이농방지및귀농촉진. - 접근성 : 우리나라의경우도로등사회인프라구조는잘갖추어져있고자동차보급률도높아접근성에는큰문제가없는편이다. 그러나농촌의고령화비율이매우높음을볼때이들과어린이, 장애인등이른바교통약자들에대한교통편의제공과오지, 도서지역농어민들에대한배려가절실하다. - 에너지접근성 : UN SDG 7항은모든사람에게중단없는에너지공급을목표로하고있다. 우리나라의경우는전력망이잘갖춰져있어전반적으로는큰문제가없으나오지, 도시지역에는풍력 태양광등재생에너지를주동력원으로하는에너지자급시스템을갖출것을권장한다. 7.3.2. 기업농도입과농업기계화 - 산업화 도시화추세가지속됨에따라농지면적이감소하고가구당농지면적이협소함을감안하여첨단농업기법과노하우를갖춘기업농을도입 ( 예컨대대규모간척지등에 ). 다만, 기업농과소규모농가간의마찰해소방안강구. - 2014년기준으로벼농사기계화율은 98% 에달하나밭작물기계화율은 56% 에불과하다. 농촌지역의인구감소와고령화에대비하여밭작물에대한기계화를확대함으로써노동력부족현상타개. IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 97
7.3.3. 교육 - 일반교육 : UN MDG Goals는국민모두에대한초등교육제공과문맹퇴치를목표로하고있으며지난 15년간큰성과를거두어세계의문자해독률은 2000년 83% 에서 2015년 91% 까지상승하였다. 우리나라의경우는초등교육은완전보편화되어문맹자는없다고해도과언이아니다. 그러나일상생활에서의불편없는문자생활, 예컨대관공서제출서류, 취업용이력서의작성및농업기술과농업용화학제품의사용법숙지등문해능력수준등으로확대한다면보편적중등교육 ( 고등학교포함 ) 의필요성이대두된다. - 다문화가정교육 : 현재우리나라에거주중인다문화가정의외국인어머니는 15만명, 이가정들의자녀수는 22만명에달하는데이들에대해서는특별한관심과대책이필요하다. 비록다문화가정자녀들의취학률은초등학교 93%, 중학교 76%(2014년, 교육부자료 ) 로꽤좋은편이나어머니와자녀간의한국어소통이어려워문제를야기시키고있다. 대부분의다문화가정에서는자녀가초등학교에입학하는순간자녀교육과단절되는다문화어머니들에대한특단의대책이요구된다. 다문화가정자녀못지않게다문화가정어머니들에대해서도최소한초등학교졸업검정시험을통과할정도의교육, 나아가서는중 고교과정보충교육과인성교육이절실하다. - 식품 영양 농업관련교육 < 식품 영양관련 > 유아기부터올바른식습관의체득화, 과도한가당 탄산음료절제 유치원부터음식의귀중함과적정량섭취훈련 초등학교 중학교단위에서균형된식단과영양의중요성및건강관련성교육 파종에서식탁에이르기까지인력, 물, 에너지, 비료, 농약등투입자원에대한교육 방송 신문등매스미디어에서의식품경시, 과도한소비조장관련내용절제 < 식품의폐기 낭비방지관련 > 수확, 유통, 가공, 소비에이르는전과정에서식품낭비방지교육 크기, 외관등이른바상품성미비식품에대한인식전환 98 한국과학기술한림원
7 장. 사회구조변화와국민교육 신선식품이아닌장기보관가능한가공식품에대한유통기간표기재고 적정량구입, 적절한식단구성으로음식물쓰레기감량교육 < 농업관련 > 농업, 축산, 양식등에서의신품종, 신기술, 노하우등에대한현장교육또는 on-line 교육 저비용고효율에현장적용가능한실용적농업기술평생교육체제구축 농기계에대한기본정비및예방정비기술교육 농사용에너지, 물등의절약과비료 농약등의적정량사용및토양보존에대한교육 비닐필름, 농약등농사용화학제품용기, 폐기농업기계, 어류양식장폐기물, 가축분뇨및기타축산농가폐기물등에대한적정한수거및처리교육 축산농가및양어장등에서의성장촉진제, 항생제등의오남용자제 구제역, 조류독감등의대량감염을방지하기위한사육장위생관리및철저한방역교육 소규모개인농에게재무 회계 보험등에대한교육 농산물유통단계를줄여농가소득을증대시킬수있는마케팅기법교육 ( 인터넷직구, 자체브랜드개발, 출하시기조절등 ) IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 99
IAP 식량영양안보와농업 - 한국의전망 영문보고서
1 Global food situation and Korean status 1.1. Global food situation The severe food shortage experienced after World War II in many regions of the world was widely alleviated by the Green Revolution of 1960s and 1970s. However, under the global free trade economic order administered by the World Trade Organization, food and agricultural products produced in the developing countries are used up to satisfy the appetites of rich countries, resulting in the rich getting richer and the poor poorer. The poor and starved people in Latin America and Africa produce coffee and fruit, while the poor farmers in Southeast Asia produce tropical fruits, palm oil, and sugar to sell in the markets of the advanced countries. The agricultural infrastructures of many developing countries have been destroyed, and the food self-sufficiency of these countries has dramatically diminished due to the in-flow of cheap grains, unhindered by trade barriers, from the mammoth-scale agricultures of countries like the US, Canada, and Australia. Developing countries are exposed to price fluctuations in the global grain market, leading to food shortages and social instability. This could be seen in the world food price crisis of 2007-08 that saw a massive spike in global grain prices, which resulted in riots in over 30 countries and the collapse of some regimes (Lee, 2012). The World Food Summit held in Rome in November 1996, commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), discussed issues such as food shortages and starvation, imbalances in the supply and demand of food, and food security of developing countries. The Summit Meeting declared that every man, woman, and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition in order to develop their physical and mental faculties. (http://www.fao.org/wfs/index_en.htm). The perception of food security varies between regions and nations depending on their food situations. Global food security against starvation and malnourishment tends to be the IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 103
concern of developing countries. Governments in general stress national food security as a stable supply of food in a nation. Furthermore, within nations, different income groups focus on consumer level food security. The FAO defines four pillars of food security: food availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. The world production of food has increased steadily to meet demand (Lee et.al., 2015).(Figure 1-1) The annual world grain production, including soybean, is estimated to be 2.5 billion tons (2007-2010 average), which is sufficient to feed the 7 billion people on the earth (ca. 1kg grain/person/year). However, the number of malnourished people continues to increase because a large part of what is produced is used to feed animals or, in recent years, for bioenergy production. According to the FAO, the number of malnourished people in the world reached one billion in 2009, subsequently decreasing slightly to 820 million in the following years (FAO, 2015). The world grain stock decreased significantly in the early 2000s, approaching the 18% stocks-to-use level that the FAO recommends as the minimum stock level. World grain prices tend to follow a pattern of ups and downs every 7-8 years due to a bad harvest followed by good harvest years and stabilized around a certain level. However, because of bioenergy production, no excess grain exists and the grain prices remain high. The producer (or supplier) will continue to decide grain prices for the foreseeable future. [Figure 1-1] The changes in world grain production, demand, and stocks 104 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
1. Global food situation and Korean status The explosive demand for animal feed in newly industrialized countries, China and India in particular, and the reduction of food production caused by global warming appear to be the main factors causing the gloomy world food outlook for the future. When the people of China and India, which together account for one-third of the world s population, start to consume meat and milk at the same rate as the rich countries, all the grain in the world market will be swept away. In fact, China began to import soybeans in 2000 and by 2015 was importing over 50 million tons of soybeans, which is 64% of the world soybean trade volume. In this situation the small countries like Korea, which imports only 1.2 million tons of soybeans annually, may not able to purchase soybeans. This all raises the question that Lester R. Brown has previously posed: Who will feed China? According to a report on the effect of global warming on food production (Table 1-1), world food production appears to be no longer increasing significantly. The grain production of some developed countries located in the northern hemisphere will increase slightly (2.7-9.0%), while that of most of the developing countries in the southern hemisphere will decrease. In particular, the countries in South Asia are expected to experience a reduction of 18.2-22.1%, and overall world food production is expected to decrease 0.6-0.9% by 2080. In this period, the world population is expected to reach 10 billion, which represents an increase in world food demand by 1.5-2.0 times. <Table 1-1> Prediction of the changes in food production by global warming 1990-2080 (% change) World -0.6 to 0 (% Developed countries 2.7 to 9.0 Developing countries -3.3 to ng c Southeast Asia -2.5 to t As South Asia -18.2 to aasia Sub-Saharan Africa -3.9 to ran Latin America 5.2 to 12.5 Source : Adapted from Tubiello and Fischer, 2007. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 105
To overcome this dire world food outlook, scientists have emphasized research and development efforts to increase food production. The most promising technology at the present time is modern biotechnology to improve seeds (Godfray et. al. 2010). Research in recombinant DNA technology has developed insect resistant and herbicide tolerant crops in order to increase productivity and markedly decrease the use of pesticides, and further research is seeking to develop drought-tolerant, salt-injury tolerant, and other improved seeds. 1.2. The status of food demand and supply in Korea 1.2.1. Food security index and self-sufficiency rate of Korea The Food Security Index of Korea is relatively high, 74.8, as shown in Figure 1-2. Korea ranks 26 th in the world, slightly lower than Japan (77.4) and higher than China (64.2). This reflects the perception held by many in Korea that the country s rich economic resources allows it to import however much food it needs. On the other hand, when we look at food self-sufficiency, we can find the weakness of Korea in food security. The food self-sufficiency rate of Korea was around 50% in 1980, but dropped drastically to 30% when the WTO launched in 1995. This was mainly due to the massive import of feed grains lead by the government s policy to promote animal husbandry in order to meet the explosive demand for animal source foods during the economic boom of the late 1980s and early 1990s. The self-sufficiency rate further decreased to 24% by 2015. Imported grain amounts to 15 million tons annually, while domestic production, mainly rice, is only 500 million tons. Food energy self-sufficiency, excluding feed stuff, reaches around 45%. The total grain supply in Korea in 1970 was 10 million tons: 7 million tons of domestic production and 3 million tons of imported grain. The amount of imported grain increased linearly and reached 18 million tons by 1995, while at the same time domestic production of grain decreased to 5 million tons.(figure 1-3) The majority of the grain produced in Korea is rice, composing roughly 80% of domestic production. Imported grains are mostly used for 106 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
1. Global food situation and Korean status animal feed: 78% of the 9 million tons of imported corn and 35% of the 3.3 million tons of wheat (as of 2009). 2015 World Food Security Index Ranking ( ) Previous year ranking Grain self-sufficiency rate of Korea(%) USA Singapore Food : without feedstuff Grain : with feedstuff Ireland Austria Food Netherlands Australia England Grain Japan Korea China (Source : MAFRA, ROK) [Figure 1-2] Food Security Index and food self-sufficiency of Korea (Lee et al. 2014) [Figure 1-3] Changes in grain production and supply in Korea IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 107
The self-sufficiency rate of food energy reduced from 79.5% in 1970 to 48.3% in 2008, and that of protein decreased from 80.1% to 49.4% over the same period. The self-sufficiency rate of fat and oils decreased from 77.2% to 22.6%, mainly caused by the heavy dependence on imported palm oil, tallow, and lard (Lee et al., 2012). Korea s low food self-sufficiency rate is mainly due to the reduction of arable land caused by the industrialization and urbanization of the country, and also due to the lack of any government policy to promote the increase of domestic production. The total arable land, 2.15 million ha in 1980, was reduced to 1.89 million ha by 2000, and further to 1.67 million ha by 2015. (The minimum amount of land required to achieve national grain self-sufficiency goal of 32% by 2020 is 1.75 million ha.) The amount of arable land decreased by 17,000 ha per year (average of the last three years), and the arable land conversion rate was 0.6%, which was three times bigger than that of Japan (National Assembly Research Service, 2016). Rice paddy land, 908,000 ha in 2015, decreased more rapidly than dry field because of the government policy to reduce rice production in order to cut rice consumption. The fact that Korea s food self-sufficiency rate is less than 50% and grain self-sufficiency is only 24% means that in an emergency situation when no cargo ships can approach the Korean peninsula half of the people will suffer from food shortage within two months. Many people in Korea console themselves by noting that the Japanese food self-sufficiency rate is as low as that of Korea. However, Japan has been establishing overseas grain elevators and trade lines for many years, and Korea partly imports grains through Japanese traders. Japan has many overseas farms, including soybean plantations in Brazil developed over many years through government support. This makes Japan a country whose food sovereignty rate is over 100%. The Korean food sovereignty rate is the same as its food self-sufficiency rate, meaning that it is difficult for Korea to keep food sovereignty. 1.2.2. Changes in self-sufficiency rate of food items The import of feed grain increased from the mid-1970s because of the increase in meat and milk consumption. Korea s grain self-sufficiency dropped from 81% in 1970 to 76 % in 108 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
1. Global food situation and Korean status 1975, and again to 56% in 1980. During the long negotiation period of the Uruguay Round, starting in the mid-1980s and ending in 1994, the traditional European grain importers like Britain and Germany met their own needs with strong support from the state, and Japan was working desperately to keep its own grain self-sufficiency from sinking below 30%. On the other hand, the grain self-sufficiency rate of Korea dropped from 50% to 29.1% during this period, and further decreased to 24% by 2015. Rice production is sufficient for the national demand, but almost all the corn and wheat in Korea is imported. (Table 1-2) The self-sufficiency rate of soybeans was 35% in 1980, but dropped rapidly after the launch of the WTO, reaching below 7% in 2000. The rate slightly increased to 13 % in 2006, when government purchasing was in practice, but it returned to below 10% when the practice was stopped. The self-sufficiency of vegetables and fruits also dropped after the WTO to below 90%, and those of milk and meat to 58.6% and 79.5%, respectively, by 2013. The import of these items has been greatly expanded by the signing of Korea s free trade agreements (FTA) with Chile, the US, the EU, and, recently, China. <Table 1-2> Changes in self-sufficiency rate of major food items in Korea 1970 1980 1990 1995 2000 2006 2009 2013 Grain (all) 80.5 56.0 43.8 30.0 30.8 27.6 30.2 23.0 Grain (w/o feed) 86.2 69.6 70.3 55.7 55.6 51.3 57.0 - Rice93.1 95.1 108.3 91.1 102.9 95.2 101.1 89.2 Wheat 15.4 4.8 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 Soybean 86.1 35.1 20.1 9.9 6.8 13.6 9.8 9.7 Vegetables 100.2 100.2 98.9 99.2 97.7 92.2 92.6 89.8 Fruits 100.2 98.6 102.5 93.2 88.7 82.6 89.5 78.7 Milk - 109.7 92.8 93.3 81.2 72.4 70.5 58.6 Meat 100.0 97.8 92.9 89.2 83.9 78.7 77.5 79.5 Egg 99.2 100.0 100.0 99.9 100.0 99.4 99.8 99.7 (Source: Agricultural Statistics, ROK) IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 109
1.2.3. Changes in food consumption in Korea Table 1-3 shows the changes in grain consumption in Korea. Between 1980 and 2014, the consumption of staple rice decreased by half, from 132kg per person per year to 65.1kg. This was mainly caused by the increased consumption of Western style foods, namely meat, milk, instant noodles, bread and so on. Barley was widely used as a rice supplement until the 1970s, consumed at a rate of 37kg per person per year in 1970, but consumption of barley has almost disappeared today. On the other hand, wheat (as flour) consumption increased from 26kg per person per year in 1970 to 31.7kg in 2014, a 22% increase. Korea imports 3.7 million tons of wheat and 10 million tons of corn annually, and the domestic production of corn and wheat covers less than 1%, meaning that Korea is totally dependent on imports in these two crops. 1.2 million tons of soybeans are imported each year and are mostly used for oil extraction and feed stuff. Domestic soybeans are used for food use, which cover only 30% of the national demand (400,000 tons per year). <Table 1-3> Changes in the consumption of grains(kg/person/year) in Korea 1970 1980 2014 Import(2014) (10,000M/T) Self-sufficiency (%) Rice136 132 65.1 410 95.7 Barley 37 14 1.3 234 1) 24.8 Wheat 26 29 31.7 377 0.7 Corn 1 3 3.5 1024 0.8 Soybean 5 8 8.1 128 11.3 (Source: Main Statistice of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries(2015)) 1) Food Balance Sheet(2013) The food consumption patterns of Koreans changed significantly during the 1980s, when the food industry rapidly developed. The consumption of animal source foods increased from 98g per person per day in 1980 to 183g per person per day in 1985; meat consumption from 79g to 119g and milk consumption from 10g to 43g. The consumption 110 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
1. Global food situation and Korean status of animal source foods further increased to 230g per person per day in 1995 and 279g per person per day in 2005. Koreans daily food intake increased from roughly 1kg per person per day in 1980 to 1.3kg per person per day in 2005, a 30% increase in 25 years. The number of livestock in Korea increased explosively to meet the animal source food demand. Table 1-4 shows the changes in numbers of livestock in Korea over the last 44 years. The number of milk cows increased 17 times from 24,000 to 431,000, Korean beef cattle from 1.28 million to 2.75 million, pigs from 1.12 million to 10.09 million, and chickens from 23.6 million to 156.4 million. (Lee et al. 2014) <Table 1-4> Changes in numbers of livestock in Korea, in thousand heads Year Beef cattle Milk cow Pig Chicken 1970 1,286 24 1,126 23,633 1980 1,361 180 1,784 40,130 1990 1,622 504 4,528 74,463 2000 1,590 544 8,214 102,547 2010 2,922 430 9,881 149,200 2014 2,759 431 10,090 156,410 (Source: Agricultural Statistics, ROK) Fishery products are an important food item for Koreans, making up 20% of protein intake. Although the consumption of fishery products in Korea has increased from 3.2 million tons in 1995 to 4.0 million tons in 2009 due to the consumers preferences for so-called well-being foods, production remains at 3 million tons.(table 1-5) Korea imports roughly 2 million tons of marine products mainly from China, Russia, Japan, Vietnam, and the US. The daily fishery food consumption of Koreans increased slightly from 16.4g per person in 1995 to 16.5g per person in 2009. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 111
Supply Demand <Table 1-5> Supply and consumption of fishery products in Korea Unit: 1000 M/T 구분 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Production 3,348 2,545 2,714 3,032 3,275 3,360 3,182 Import 948 1,420 2,557 2,646 2,604 2,135 2,186 Stock-over 460 582 531 512 575 618 567 Total 4,756 4,547 5,802 6,190 6,454 6,113 5,935 Domestic consumption 3,215 2,699 4,169 4,568 4,625 4,280 4,071 Export 1,170 1,338 1,121 1,047 1,211 1,266 1,336 Stock-over 371 510 512 575 618 567 528 (Source: MAFRA. ROK.) Within the daily food consumption of 1.3kg per person in Korea, 20% (270g) is composed of animal source foods, including meat, milk, fish and eggs. The daily food energy intake is estimated to be about 2,000 kcal, 65% of which comes from carbohydrates, 15% from protein, and 20% from fats and oils. The consumption of fats and oils has increased significantly due to the elevated animal food intake. Due to over-eating and over-nutrition the number of overweight people in Korea has increased to 33% of the population. This is especially a concern for children. In addition, the prevalence of cancer, diabetes, high blood pressure, cardiac diseases, and other metabolic diseases is becoming an important social concern. The Korean dietary habits appear to be deteriorating in cost-ineffective directions through the consumption of too much animal food, at high cost, and wasting too much food. The end result of this is declining health and increasing national food insecurity. Korea is the only divided country left after the Cold War. North Koreans suffer from poverty and starvation under the closed dictatorship s reign of terror. Korean unification is the prime national agenda for South Korea, with the goal of freeing North Koreans from miserable oppression. With this in mind, food security should be considered as an utmost priority in the preparation for Korean unification. 112 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
1. Global food situation and Korean status 1.3. Food security policies for Korean unification The Korea Food Security Research Foundation has published two books, Korean Unification and Food Security (Sikanyeon Publishing, 2012) and Food Self-sufficiency; The Condition for an Advanced Country (Sikanyeon Publishing, 2014), and has suggested the following policy plans. (1) Increased rice production goals in South Korea The rice needed to feed the 70 million people living in a unified Korea should be supplied mainly from the South, where most of the rice paddies on the Korean peninsula exist. If South Korea continues to suppress rice production by reducing rice paddy area, it will be difficult to keep rice self-sufficiency after unification. Rice production goals should be raised from their current level of 4 million tons per year to 4.8 million tons, and the government should endeavor to keep rice paddies in order to achieve this production goal. The excess rice produced, 800,000 tons, can either be saved to support unification or used to support low-income people in South Korea. (2) Enact a law mandating the saving of 1.2 million tons of unification-rice It has been estimated that 1.5 million tons of rice would be needed in the event that the sudden unification takes place on the Korean peninsula. To prepare for this situation, the government needs to enact a unification-rice saving law to save 600,000 tons of rice each year for two years, which would then be discharged to the rice processing industry. Such a law could act as a powerful message of unification to the people of North Korea and it could serve as the basis for the trust-building process. 400,000 tons of minimum market access (MMA) imported rice and 200,000 tons of domestic produce can be used for this purpose. The budget for this project is estimated to be 484.4 billion Won (USD 440 million) and 11.8% of the unification and foreign affairs budget of the Korean government in 2013. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 113
(3) Implementation of rice stamp support for low-income people in South Korea In order to prepare the legislative basis for immediate rice support to North Koreans in the event of a sudden unification, South Korea should have a rice support system for low income people prior to unification. Rice-coupons or stamps to be used to purchase 10 kg of rice or rice products per person per month can be donated to low income people who are estimated to be about 7% of the total population in South Korea. With this welfare law in place the low income people in North Korea will be supported automatically when unification takes place. An additional 175,000 tons of rice is estimated to be consumed by the implementation of this law in South Korea. The budget for this welfare law is estimated to be 810.6 billion Won (USD 737 million), only 0.8% of the health and welfare budget of the government in 2013. (4) Plan to achieve self-sufficiency of soybean for food use The traditional Korean meal is basically composed of cooked rice and soybean side dishes (soybean sprout, soybean curd, soybean paste stew, etc.). Although soybean is an important staple food in Korea, the effort to become self-sufficient in soybean production has been disregarded due to the prime emphasis on rice. The self-sufficiency rate of soybeans was at 60% in 1990, but has since decreased to 30% today. The reduction of soybean production is mainly caused by the price policy managed by the government. The government imports soybeans and distributes them to the soybean food processing companies. The tariff rate quota (TRQ) soybeans cost 1,020 Won/kg, while domestic soybeans cost 5,000 Won/kg. Either the price of imported soybeans should be adjusted to meet the price level of domestic product, or those who buy TRQ soybeans should be required by regulation to purchase the same amount of domestic soybeans. This will enhance the soybean self-sufficiency to over 50% immediately. In the long term, Korea is able to achieve food-use soybean self-sufficiency by turning corn fields in North Korea to soybean cultivation after unification. 114 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
1. Global food situation and Korean status (5) Adoption of European style animal husbandry licensing system The feed grain self-sufficiency rate in Korea is only 2%, which means almost all feed grains are imported. This drags down the grain self-sufficiency to the level of 25%. In Europe, farmers produce their feedstuff on their own land, and return the night soil to the land. To keep the balance, a strict licensing system determines the number of animals allowed to be reared based on the farm s land area. Korea should adopt an animal husbandry licensing system and require farmers to produce at least 10-20% of their feed grains to enhance national grain self-sufficiency and to improve the farm environment. It is necessary to implement this regulation in South Korea prior to unification, in order to maintain the beautiful landscape of the Korean peninsula. (6) Collaborative fishing project between South and North Korea Marine products are important food materials providing 20% of the protein supply of Koreans. In order to increase production capacity, more investment should be allocated to fishing and fish-farming technology research and development, and fishing boat and appliances development. Collaborative fishing activities between South and North Koreans in open waters should be encouraged. The fisheries agreements between North Korea and neighboring countries should be reviewed for adjustment prior to unification. (7) Bolstering food industries to prepare for a food emergency The importance of food industry is ever increasing, covering over 50% of the food supply in Korea. The Korean food industry has achieved a high enough technology level that allows it to compete with those of advanced countries and expand its market overseas. The food industries should be bolstered in order to be an advanced guard for national food security. The average operation rate of Korean food industries is estimated to be 40%, and the production capacity is enough to supply processed food to North Koreans after unification. A food industry development plan and transport/distribution plans for the unified nation should be made prior to unification. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 115
<Science and Technology for the solution of the problems> (1) Development of new seeds (GMOs) adaptable to global climate change - Development of agricultural biotechnology (2) Plant cultivation technology and animal rearing skills to improve agricultural productivity (3) Development of food processing technology to enhance utilization of domestic produce, including rice 116 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
1. Global food situation and Korean status References FAO. Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action, Rome (1996), FAO, The state of food insecurity in the world (2009, 2015) Godfray, H.C.J. et,al., Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people, Science, vol.327, 812-818 (2010) Lee, C. H., Food War 2030, Sikanyeon publishing (2012) Lee, C. H. and Rhee, S. J., Global food crisis and Korean response measures, Food Science and Industry, 44(3) 20-37 (2011) Lee, C. H., Moon, H. P., Kim, Y. T., Kim, Rhee, S. J. and Lee, G. I., Food Self-sufficiency, Condition for an Advanced Country, Sikanyeon publishing (2014) Lee, C. H., Moon, H. P., Kim, Y. T., Kim, S. K., Park, T. K., and Kwon, I. B., Korea Unification and Food Security, Sikanyeon publishing (2015) Lee, C. H., Liu, J. R., Moon, H. P., Park, H. J., Kwak., S. S., Lee, H. K., Park, S. C., Kim, J. K., and Rhee, S. J., Policy Strategy for Applying Biotechnology to the Agricultural Innovation of Korea, KAST Research Report 101 (2015) National Assembly Research Service, Issues and tasks against arable land conversion (2016) Tubiello, F.N. and Fischer, G., Reducing climate change impacts on agriculture: Global and regional effects of mitigation, 2000-2080, Technological Forecasting and Social Change 74, 1030-1056 (2007) IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 117
2 The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans For decades, the standard of living in Korea has been greatly improved as a result of rapid economic development. The changing family structure and increasing working women have accelerated socialization of diet practices. International trades have brought much more varieties of foods into Korean market than ever before. Under the increasing dependence on overseas food supply and rapid westernization of diet, chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, hypertension and metabolic syndrome have become more prevalent and cause greater social and economic burden. For planning long term planning for public health and stable food supply for Koreans, current health problems linked to food environment and Korean diets should be understood. This chapter therefore focuses on Korean food supplies, current nutritional issues and trends, and health problems related to diet. Furthermore, new Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRIs) and National Dietary Guidelines for preventing diseases and promoting healthy life will be introduced. 2.1. The nutritional status of Koreans 2.1.1. Food supply for Koreans According to Food Balance Sheet by the Korea Rural Economic Institute, there has been a great change in the food supply per capita per day in the last 40 years in Korea (Table 2-1). The supply of Cereals and Starchy roots have continuously decreased, whereas other food groups have gradually increased. Compared to 1970s, food groups which increased the most in 2014 were Tree Nuts (54.0 times), followed by Milk (34.7 times), Oils and Fats (14.1 times), Other Cereals (10.9 times), Oil Crops (10.5 times), 118 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans Meat (6.2 times) and Fruit (5.0 times). The largest food groups (increasing order) in 2014 were Vegetables (421.9 g), followed by Cereals (373.7 g), Milk (170.1 g), Meat (142.0 g), Fruit (137.4 g), and Fishes and shellfishes (114.8 g). The proportion of rice among cereals has decreased, whereas various vegetables and animal foods such as dairy product and meat have increased noticeably. <Table 2-1> Trends in food supply for Koreans (Unit: g per capita per day) Food Group Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2014 Cereals 534.0 505.5 480.7 457.1 397.5 373.7 Rice357.4 363.0 330.9 268.1 223.2 206.4 Wheat 68.7 80.3 81.4 99.0 91.3 87.6 Barley 100.8 38.4 6.7 4.9 3.7 3.6 Cereals, other 7.0 23.9 61.8 85.0 79.3 76.1 Starchy Roots 153.4 58.8 30.2 32.2 37.9 34.3 Sweeteners 17.1 28.1 42.0 48.9 62.3 66.4 Pulses 18.3 26.5 28.1 29.4 28.5 28.3 Tree Nuts 0.1 1.2 1.3 4.1 4.1 5.4 Oil Crops 0.2 1.1 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.1 Vegetables 164.2 329.5 363.3 454.6 362.1 421.9 Fruit 27.5 44.4 79.3 111.4 121.0 137.4 Meat 22.8 37.9 64.6 102.8 119.3 142.0 Eggs 8.7 16.0 21.6 23.5 27.1 30.6 Milk 4.9 29.5 87.1 135.0 156.1 170.1 Fishes and shellfishes 40.2 61.5 83.6 84.1 100.1 114.8 Seaweeds 7.2 12.2 15.5 16.6 40.2 46.6 Oils and Fats 4.0 13.8 39.1 43.6 55.0 56.4 (Korea Rural Economic Institute, 1994; Korea Rural Economic Institute, 2015) IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 119
2.1.2. Nutrient Intakes of Koreans For last 40 years, transitions in food environment have transformed aspects of nutrient intakes (Table 2-2). Those changes have been reported in the Korea Health Statistics by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. The carbohydrate intakes have decreased gradually while fat intakes have increased since 1970. The intakes of vitamins and minerals have also been on the rise except for Niacin and Sodium. <Table 2-2> Trends in nutrient intakes of Korean per capita per day 1) Unit of IU was used up to the 1990s Nutrients Year 1970 1980 1990 1998 2008 2014 Energy(kcal) 2,150 2,052 1,868 1,934 1,868 2,075 Protein(g) 64.6 67.2 78.9 73.2 66.7 72.7 Fat(g) 17.2 21.8 28.9 40.1 39.3 49.7 Carbohydrate(g) 434 396 316 315.5 297.7 308.0 Calcium(mg) 466 598 517 500.5 488.5 493.1 Phosphorus(mg) - - - 1,060.6 1,116.7 1,091.6 Sodium(mg) - - - 4581.6 4,607.6 3,874.1 Potassium(mg) - - - 2,522.4 2,830.2 2,940.0 Iron(mg) 11.2 13.5 22.7 12.5 13.3 16.9 Vitamin A( μgre) 1) 939 1,688 1,662 609.5 770.8 757.9 Thiamin(mg) 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 2.0 Riboflavin(mg) 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 Niacin(mg) 16.3 19.1 21.6 15.5 15.1 16.3 Ascorbic acid(mg) 82.9 87.9 81.2 123.7 99.7 96.1 (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a) 120 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans [Figure 2-1] Trends in the proportion of percent energy from macronutrients (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a) Figure 2-1 shows the percent energy intakes from macronutrients among Koreans. Koreans obtained 63.8% of energy from carbohydrate, 21.6% from fat and 14.6% from protein in 2014. This is significantly different from the year of 1970, when 80.8% of energy was originated from carbohydrate, 7.2% from fat and 12.0% from protein. Nonetheless, carbohydrate from cereal based meals remains as the major energy source for Korean. For some micronutrients, high proportion of Koreans consumed less than the Dietary Reference Intake for Koreans (KDRIs) (Table 2-3). About 68.3% of Korean men and 73.9% of women consumed calcium less than the estimated average requirement (EAR). The similar patterns were observed for vitamin A, vitamin C and riboflavin. In addition, The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES 2010-2011) reported high prevalence rate of vitamin D deficiency, measured by blood vitamin D level, among men (65.9%) and women (77.7%) (Jung IK, 2013). Meanwhile, the excess intake of energy and fat was higher among men (11.2%) than women (6.8%) and the highest rates were found among 19-29 years (10.9%) and 30-49 years (11.6%) (Figure 2-2). More than 80% of Korean adults (19-64 years) consumed sodium over 2000 mg (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015b). IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 121
<Table 2-3> The prevalence rate of Koreans whose intakes below the EAR 1) of 2010 KDRIs Nutrients Less than the EAR(%) Male Female Protein 10.9 18.1 Calcium 68.3 73.9 Potassium 9.5 17.9 Iron 10.3 27.4 Vitamin A 42.2 45.4 Thiamin 6.1 11.5 Riboflavin 38.2 40.7 Niacin 23.5 35.9 Vitamin C 58.0 56.0 1) Estimated Average Requirement of 2010 KDRIs (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a) [Figure 2-2] The prevalence rate of Koreans with excess intakes of energy and fat 1) 1) Those who had over 125% of estimated energy requirement (EER) and over acceptable macronutrient distribution range (AMDR) of fat(25%) of 2010 KDRIs (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a) 2.2. The Dietary behaviors of Koreans 2.2.1. The westernization of dietary pattern Western lifestyle was introduced in Korea along with the rapid economic growth since 1970s. The traditional Korean meals, mainly composed of rice, soup and kimchi, have been gradually evolved into western-style meals with bread, pasta and meat. The transition in meal patterns among Koreans has been substantiated by KNHANES data(1998-2005). The meal patterns of Korean adults were classified into two; Traditional Pattern and Modified Pattern. The Traditional Pattern was characterized by high intakes of white rice, legumes, vegetables, kimchi and seafood, whereas the Modified Pattern was featured with high intakes of other grain, noddle, bread, pizza, hamburger, potatoes, nuts, fruits, meat, fishes, milk and beverages(kang et al., 2011). Among the 20 s, the proportion of Modified Pattern increased from 47.4% in 1988 to 65.6% in 2005. However, the proportion of Traditional Pattern was still high among those between the ages of 50-64(62.2%) and over 65 years 122 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans old(77.6%). In other words, rice and kimchi remains as major elements of Korean diet, but the preference for bread, noodle and meat has become obvious among younger age groups. 2.2.2. The increase of eating out and processed food intakes The intakes of processed and imported foods were increased with the growth of global food trades in volumes and varieties. According to Consumption and Consumer Behavior Survey of Processed Foods by the Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corporation, the purchase of processed food accounted for 38.0% of the household food expenditure. Figure 2-3 shows that the household spent 13,375 Korean won(krw) per month for Beverages, followed by Snacks/Frozen desserts (KRW 12,548), Dairy products (KRW 10,827), Home Meal Replacement (KRW 9,820), and Side dishes (KRW 8,797)(Figure 2-3) (Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corporation, 2015). Meanwhile, preference for convenient and fast foods rose with the increase of eating out among dual-earner families and single person households(joung et al., 2013). One third of Koreans(32.4%) was reported to eat out more than once per day according to KNHANES in 2014(Figure 2-4). [Figure 2-3] Monthly Expenditure per Household for major processed food groups (Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corporation, 2015) [Figure 2-4] The trend for the rate of eating out more than one time per day (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a) IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 123
2.3. Health issues related to diet among Koreans Due to large increase in varieties and quantities of food, it became easy to consume any food anywhere and anytime. The affluent food environment increased the risks of unbalanced diets by eating specific foods less than or in excess of the body requirement (Joung et al., 2013). The unbalanced diet is known to be closely related to the leading causes of death in Korea: cancer, heart diseases, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes, liver disease, and hypertensive disorders (Statistics Korea, 2015). On the other hand, undernourishment or deficiency still exist among subgroups of Korean population, which is another health issues society should bear. 2.3.1. Health issues related to undernourishment Although overall standard of living in Korea has improved, there are still considerable amounts of health issues from undernourishment among the disadvantaged socioeconomic status by educational level, occupation, income and property(korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs, 2014). The KNHANES reported the prevalence rate of underweight among Korean adults as 4.8% in 2014. The underweight prevalence among women increased from 5.5% in 2005 to 6.4% in 2014(Figure 2-5). The prevalence of anemia among women mainly due to the lack of iron intake rose from 12.6% in 1998 to 15.2% in 2005 and fell to 11.7% in 2014. It was four times higher than the 3.0% among men(figure 2-5). The prevalence of osteoporosis among women of aged over 50 years was significantly higher(34.9%) than men in the 2012 KNHANES(Figure 2-6). Moreover, the prevalence of osteoporosis rose as people became older for both genders. About 65.2% of women aged 70 years and older had osteoporosis. More attention is needed for postmenopausal women and the elderly in relation to nutritional status of calcium and vitamin D to control osteoporosis. 124 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans [Figure 2-5] Trends in underweight and anemia among Korean adults (a)underweight:19+years old(2010,2014),20+years old(2001, 2005);(b)Anemia:30+years old (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a; Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2011; Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2006; Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2002) [Figure 2-6] The prevalence rate for osteoporosis in Korean adults over 50 years old in 2012 (Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013) 2.3.2. Health problems from over-nutrition and nutritional imbalance The prevalence of chronic diseases related to the over-nutrition or nutritional imbalance displays an increasing trend in Korea(Figure 2-7). According to KNHANES, the obesity prevalence in Korean adults(19 years and older) increased from 26.0% in 1998 to 29.2% in 2001 and to 31.3% in 2005. Since then, obesity prevalence has been stable around 30.0% IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 125
for 2010 and 2014. The prevalence of diabetes decreased from 11.6% in 1998 to 10.2% in 2014 (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a). Hypertension prevalence has decreased in general, although 30% of men are still hypertensive(ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a). The prevalence of metabolic syndrome, a clustering of metabolic risk factors such as abdominal obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia and insulin resistance, continuously increased since 1998(Lim et al., 2011). Specially, cancer, the top cause of death among Koreans, has increased by 3.1% in all-cancer incidence per year between 1999 and 2013. The age-standardized incidence for all kinds of cancer in Korea was 290.5 per 100,000 persons(oh et al., 2016). The incidence of cancer among men was the highest in the gastric cancer, followed by colon cancer, lung cancer and liver cancer. Korean women showed higher incidence of thyroid cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer and gastric cancer(figure 2-8). Considering chronic diseases are related with nutritional practices such as lower intakes of fruit and vegetables as well as over intakes of fat, sweets and sodium(who, 2013; Freeman & Judge, 2005; Kim & Oh, 2012), nutritional aspect should be highlighted in the course of developing policies and programs for managing chronic diseases. [Figure 2-7] The trend of Chronic Disease prevalence among Korean adults (a) Obesity: 19+ years old; (f) Metabolic syndrome: 20+ years old; (b)-(e) The rest of diseases: 30+ years old (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015a; Lim et al., 2011) 126 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans (Oh et al, 2016) [Figure 2-8] Age-standardized incidence rate of major cancer by sex in Korea 2.4. Nutrition standards for Koreans Proper nutrient intakes are essential for promoting health and preventing diet-related chronic diseases. The Dietary Reference Intakes(DRIs) for Koreans recommends the appropriate consumption levels of energy and nutrients. Most countries have developed their own DRIs for nutrition related policies and businesses. Furthermore, dietary guidelines are provided for applying DRIs on diet practices in food levels, since the people consume various nutrients in food simultaneously. 2.4.1. Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans In 1962, the Korea FAO Association(The Korean branch of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) announced the first Recommended Dietary Allowances(RDAs) for Koreans of 10 nutrients including energy, protein, vitamin A, thiamin, niacin, vitamin C and vitamin D. Since the initial establishment of RDA, it had been revised 7 times. As health problems due to nutritional imbalance and over-nutrition as well as undernourishment became obvious, the Korean Nutrition Society published the new concept of Dietary Reference Intakes(DRIs) to address both undernourishment and over-nutrition IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 127
issues in 2005(The Korean Nutrition Society, 2005). Recently, the Korean government become responsible for establishing DRIs under undernuourishment became obvious, the Korean Nutrition Society published the new concept of 2015 DRIs for Koreans including energy and 35 nutrients, based on latest scientific evidences; the human requirement for each nutrient, relationship between diet and diseases, physical standards, nutritional status and health status(ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015b). The DRIs for Koreans are consisted of four elements: estimated average requirement(ear), recommended intake(ri), adequate intake(ai) and tolerable upper intake level(ui). The DRIs for Koreans can be widely used for evaluating and planning individual and group diet, labeling processed foods, managing the standard of school meals, and serving many other purposes such as food and nutrition policies and programs. 2.4.2. Food Guide and Food Balance Wheel There might be difficulties for general public to apply DRIs into their usual diet practices. To overcome this hurdle, food guides and food models are suggested in most countries. (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015b) [Figure 2-9] The Korean Food Balance Wheel 128 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans The Korean Food Guide suggested proper food intakes that satisfy DRIs for Koreans(Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2015b). The Korean Food Guide grouped common Korean foods into 6 groups: Grains, Meat, Fish, Eggs & Beans, Vegetables, Fruits, Milk, and Oils and Sugars. Daily intake servings are suggested for each food group. For easy understanding of the food guide, food model Food Balance Wheel has been developed. It shows the importance of balanced diet, regular exercise and appropriate water intake (Figure 2-9). 2.4.3. Dietary Guidelines for Koreans Considering the traditional health issues, nutrition problems and dietary habits, each country develops its own national dietary guidelines in order to promote healthy diets. In 1986, the Korean Nutrition Society announced dietary guidelines with 10 principles, which have been updated. In 2016, the three government agencies (Ministry of Health and Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs and Ministry of Food and Drug Safety jointly developed the National Dietary Guidelines for Koreans (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2016). The National Dietary Guidelines for Koreans present 9 guidelines for balanced dietary intake, good diet habit, Korean diet and food safety. <Table 2-4> National Dietary Guidelines for Koreans 1. Eat a variety of grains, vegetables, fruits, fish, meat, poultry, and dairy products. 2. Eat breakfast every day. 3. Increase physical activity for a healthy weight and balance what you eat with your activity. 4. Eat less salty, sugary, and fatty foods. 5. Choose water as a drink. 6. If you drink alcoholic beverages, do so in moderation. 7. Prepare foods properly and order foods in sensible amounts. 8. Enjoy our rice-based diet. 9. Try to eat meals with your family. (Ministry of Health and Welfare; Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs; Ministry of Food and Drug Safety) IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 129
<Science technology for problem-solving> Produce scientific evidences for human requirement for each nutrient and the relationship between diseases and nutrients to establish the next dietary references intakes. Construct database for nutrients and other components for common Korean foods to expand application of KDRIs Develop dietary guidelines for individual disease prevention based on the dietary behaviors and food environment among Korean Apply mobile health care technology for managing and evaluating nutrient intakes. 130 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
2. The nutritional status and nutritional standards for Koreans References Freeman MW, Junge CE. The Harvard Medical School guide to lowering your cholesterol. McGraw Hill Professional, 2005. Joung H, Kim BH, Song Y, Lee JE. Nutrition in Public Health. Seoul: Yang Seo Won; 2013. Jung IK, Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Korea : Results from KNHANES 2010 to 2011. J Nutr Health. 2013;46(6):540-551. Kang M, Joung H, Lim JH, Lee YS, Song Y. Secular trend in dietary patterns in a Korean adult population, using the 1998, 2001, and 2005 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Korean J Nutr. 2011;44(2):152-161. Kim EJ, Oh SW. Gender Differences in the association of occupation with metabolic syndrome in Korean adults. Korean J Obes. 2012;21(2):108-114. Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corporation. Consumption and consumer behavior survey of processed foods. 2015. Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The 5th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-3) and the 8th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey (2012); 2013. Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs. Developing health inequalities indicators and monitoring the status of health inequalities in Korea. 2014. Korea Rural Economic Institute. Food Balance Sheet. 1994. Korea Rural Economic Institute. Food Balance Sheet. 2015. Lim S, Shin H, Song JH, Kwak SH, Kang SM, Yoon JW, Choi SH, Cho SI, Park KS, Lee HK, Jang HC, Koh KK. Increasing prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korea: Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1998-2007. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(6):1323-1328. Ministry of Health and Welfare. Ministry of Health and Welfare. The third Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES III), 2005 Health Examination-. 2006. Ministry of Health and Welfare. Korea Health Statistics 2010: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-1). 2011 IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 131
Ministry of Health and Welfare. Korea Health Statistics 2014: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VI-2). 2015a Ministry of Health and Welfare. Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans 2015. 2015b. Ministry of Health and Welfare. Press Release: Establishment of National Dietary Guidelines for Koreans for healthy diet. 2016. (Released: April 8, 2016) Oh CM, Won YJ, Jung KW, Kong HJ, Cho H, Lee JK, Lee DH, Lee KH; Community of population-based Regional Cancer Registries. Cancer statistics in Korea: incidence, mortality, survival, and prevalence in 2013. Cancer Res Treat. 2016;48(2):436-50. Statistics Korea. Press Release: The cause of Death Statistics in 2014. 2015. (Released: September 23, 2015) The Korean Nutrition Society. Dietary Reference Intakes for Korean. 2005. WHO (World Health Organization). A global brief on hypertension. 2013. 132 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3 USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA 3.1. INTRODUCTION Agriculture productivity in Korea has been significantly improved through the development of agricultural land and water, farm mechanization, and the application of fertilizers and pesticides. Paddy irrigation and chemical applications have contributed to the high levels of rice yields--691 kg/10a, or 2.1 times the world average yields--and is at the same level as other advanced countries. Korea s self-sufficiency rate of rice, the staple crop, is nearly 100 percent, although its rate of food self-sufficiency is very low. Fresh vegetables and fruits are also produced all year in greenhouses. Nearly eighty percent of paddy fields are irrigated from public water sources. Farm mechanization and greenhouse heating consume oils and electricity, making up about two percent of Korea two percent of blic waalso, high amounts of agricultural chemicals are being used for crop and vegetable production. In this chapter, the present status of, and future prospects for, the development of cultivated land and agricultural water, along with energy and chemical consumption, will be discussed. It also presents some technical and policy issues for sustainable crop and vegetable production. 3.2. CULTIVATED LAND AND IRRIGATED PADDY FIELD 3.2.1. Cultivated Land The cultivated area of Korea is 1.691 million hectare (ha), or about 16.5% of the total land. The average cultivated area is 0.04ha per capita, which is very small compared to many other advanced countries (1.5ha in the US, 0.5ha in France, and 0.3ha in the UK). IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 133
The farmland area per farm household is 1.51 ha. The cultivated area consists of 933,600 ha of paddy fields and 757,500 ha of upland (or dry fields). The land utilization rate is 110%, meaning that 10 percent of the cultivated area is being used more than once in a year. Figure 3-1 shows the variations in cultivated land from 1970 to 2015, measured every 10 year from 1970 to 2010 and annual from 2011 to 2015. The acreage of cultivated land has steadily decreased: from 2.298 million ha in 1970, to 2.196 million ha in 1980, to 2.1 million ha in 1990, and to 1.88 million ha in 2010. The average annual decrease in cultivated land was 13,800 ha. The conversion of upland and paddy fields into building sites for public construction purposes explains this rapid reduction. (MAFRA, 2015) [Figure 3-1] Changes in cultivated land areas during 1970~2015 The continuing decrease in cultivated area is one of the major concerns in terms of creating sustainable agriculture. To compensate for this decrease in farmland, the government has implemented national projects to reclaim tidal flats, converting them to cultivated land. This newly reclaimed land, however, needs some years in order to become as productive as existing cultivated land. Land readjustment projects have been implemented to reshape irregular partitions of 134 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA paddy fields and to construct farm roads and irrigation and drainage canals. The project has nearly completed 800,000 ha, which has made farm mechanization possible. 3.2.2. Irrigated Paddy Field Irrigated paddy fields are those which are provided water from public water sources. The total area of irrigated paddy field is 752,600 ha, or 80.6 percent of the country s total area of paddy fields. The remaining paddy fields are partially irrigated from small ponds and creeks nearby by individual farmers. The Korea Rural Community Corporation (KRC) provides water management services to 512,600 ha of irrigated paddy fields. Among the irrigated paddy fields, those with water sources large enough to supply water over the ten-year drought cycle are called well irrigated paddy fields (WIPF). WIPF make up 59.6 percent of the total irrigated area. Figure 3-2 shows the variations of irrigated paddy area during the past six years (2009~2013). (MAFRA and KRC, 2014) [Figure 3-2] Irrigated paddy and percent of irrigated paddy 3.2.3. Upland Improvement Projects The Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA) has implemented upland IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 135
improvement projects to develop water resources and farm roads for collectively farmed upland plots greater than 30 ha. The target acreage for the projects is 180,000 ha or 24% of the total upland farming lands. As of 2013, 101, 200 ha of upland farming land had been developed. Table 3-1 shows the acreage and other details of those projects from 2007 to 2013. year <Table 3-1> Upland infrastructure development projects during 2007 2013 number of districts farmland area, in ha number of groundwater wells irrigated area, in ha 2007 56 1,935.6 28,143 2,801 2008 53 2,385.3 38,712 222 2009 46 2,094.7 3,450 4,971 2010 60 3,163.8 58,786 319 2011 95 4,524.2 85,882 24,697 2012 91 3,965.5 51,350 570 2013 75 3,163.1 39,240 2,601 계 476 21,232.2 305,563 36,181 3.3. WATER RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURAL WATER USAGE 3.3.1. Precipitation The mean annual precipitation in Korea is 1,277 mm, about 1.6 times the world average. Figure 3-3 shows the annual precipitation from 1907 to 2007. Over that period of time, the mean varied significantly from year to year, with the lowest annual precipitation dropping to 754 mm in 1939 and the highest reaching 1,756 mm, or 2.3 times that of the lowest, in 2003. Figure 3-3 also shows that the annual precipitation has gradually increased over the past hundred years. Also, the variation of annual precipitation has increased within the recent years, as floods and droughts become more frequent. Thus, most hydraulic structures that were built based on the past rainfall records do not have a sufficient storage capacity or flood prevention capability 136 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA (KWRA, 2016) [Figure 3-3] Annual precipitation and the trends in Korea (1907~2007) 3.3.2. Water Resources The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) has presented a long-term water resources plan that sets annual average water resources, which is defined as the amount of precipitation times the country s total land area and plus the inflows from North Korea, at 129.7 billion m 3,. Figure 3-4 shows the total water resources and water usage. The mean streamflow is 75.3 billion m 3, or 58% of the total. This is what is defined as the available water resources (AWR), and Korea s AWR per capita is 1,453 m 3. Nearly three quarters of Korea s AWR (74%) falls within the monsoon period (July to September). The total water use is 33.3 billion m 3, or 26 percent of the total AWR. The intake water usage is 22.5 billion m 3 and makes up 34 percent of AWR. The ratio of intake water usage to AWR is 34% and is thus classified as being mid to high in terms of water stress conditions. Agricultural water usage is 15.9 billion m 3, or 62% of the total intake usage and 2.1 times more than the 7.5 billion m 3 of domestic water use. The agricultural water use consists of 14.2 billion m 3 (89%) for paddy irrigation and 1.7 billion m 3 (11%) for upland and other agricultural uses. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 137
[Figure 3-4] Water resources and uses in Korea (KWRA, 2016) 3.3.3. Agricultural Water Sources Agricultural water sources for supplying irrigation water to paddy fields consist of reservoirs, pumping stations, diversion weirs, and groundwater wells. The groundwater sources include deep groundwater wells and collecting wells for shallow subsurface water. As of 2013 17,427 reservoirs, 7,833 pumping stations, 18,105 weirs, and 2,669 deep groundwater wells provide water for paddy irrigation. 454,000 ha of paddy acreage is irrigated from reservoirs (58.4%), 197,000 ha from pumping stations (25.5%), 71,000 ha from weirs (9.1%), and 50,000 ha from wells (6.5%). Table 3-2 summarizes the irrigation acreage from each water source. The total water storage capacity of agricultural reservoirs is 3.1 billion m 3, which averages to be 179,000 m 3 for each reservoir. Among them 15,319, or 88 percent of the total, store less than 100,000 m 3. In terms of age, 9,005 reservoirs (61.5%)were constructed before 1945, 3,089 reservoirs (17.7%) are between 50 and 70 years old, 4,483 reservoirs (17.7%) are between 30 and 50 years old, and 850 reservoirs (4.9%) are less than 30 years old. This indicates that most agricultural reservoirs have a small storage capacity and are too old to function properly, seeing as 69.4% is older than 50 years. 138 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA <Table 3-2> Agricultural water sources and their irrigation acreage Water Sources Number of Structures Irrigated Area (thousand ha) Number of Water Sources and Irrigation Area Less than 10ha 50 ha 100 ha 500 ha No. of Area structures % No. of structures % No. of Area structures % No. of Areaq structures % Greater than 500 ha No. of Area structures % Reservoirs 13,671 453,925 8,417 8.7 4,031 17.0 506 8.0 623 29.1 94 37.2 Pumping Stations 2,610 197,447 986 2.6 1,190 12.4 168 6.2 198 22.8 68 55.9 Weirs 8,431 71,079 6,609 35.6 1,681 42.5 101 9.4 36 8.4 4 4 Ground water Wells 13,896 49,878 13,418 82.9 466 15.0 10 1.2 2 0.9 0.0 Sum 38,608 772,329 29,430 14.4 7,368 18.0 785 7.3 859 23.8 166 36.6 (MAFRA and KRC, 2013) 3.3.4. Irrigation and Drainage Canals As of 2013, the total length of irrigation and drainage canals for paddy fields was 186,000 km. The total length of irrigation canals was 117,000 km, consisting of 56,000 km of canal made of earth materials and 61,000 km, or 52.1% of the total length, made of concrete. Due to infiltration or leakage, earthen canals have high water losses during the delivery of water from the sources to the fields. This loss often amounts to 20 to 25 percent of the total delivered water and may significantly reduce the irrigation system s efficiency. Frequently, tall grass and weeds growing in those canals slow down the water delivery and further reduce irrigation efficiency. Thus, it is important to rehabilitate old irrigation canal systems in order to promote efficient water management. 3.3.5. Agricultural Water Use Agricultural water is the sum total of water used for irrigating both paddy fields and upland fields and for animal husbandry. Irrigation water requirements depend on many different variables, such as weather conditions, crop types and growth stage, farming practices, and irrigation methods. For paddy irrigation, there are different depths of water IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 139
required for transplanting the rice and for flooding. Figure 3-5 shows the annual irrigation water requirements for paddy fields from 1990 to 2015. The mean annual water requirement was 9.8 billion m 3 and it varies from as high as 13.3 billion m 3 in 1994 to as low as 5.9 billion m 3 in 2009. The ratio of the largest requirement to the smallest was 2.3. The reason why the annual requirements vary significantly is attributed to the differences in the amount of effective rainfall, which is the portion of the daily rainfall that contributes to flooding depths in the paddy fields. (KRC, 2016) [Figure 3-5] Annual water requirements for paddy irrigation Rain-fed cultural practices are common for most crops in the upland fields. Vegetable farms use sprinkler irrigation methods for dry periods. The water requirements depend on crop evapotranspiration and effective rainfall. Greenhouse irrigation demands are similar to that of upland crops but do not consider effective rainfall. KRC estimates annual agricultural water requirements based on future scenarios for cropping practices, paddy and upland acreage, greenhouse acreage, and livestock heads. The estimated agricultural water use for the driest year of a ten-year drought cycle was about 15.9 billion m 3. Meanwhile, long-term agricultural water use is estimated to decrease to 15.3 billion m 3 140 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA by 2020, and then to 14.9 billion m 3 by 2025. This is because of the continuing decrease in cultivated area. Paddy Water Classification <Table 3-3> Agricultural water requirements for regional river basins Han Riverbasin Regional Water Requirements (million m 3 ) Nagdong Riverbasin Keum Riverbasin Sumjin Riverbasin Youngsan Riverbasin Jeju Island Mean 2,257.7 2,928.7 3,350.4 1,005.5 1,618.1 3.5 11,163.9 Normal year 2,258.1 2,929.4 3,351.2 1,005.7 1,618.5 3.5 11,166.4 10-year cycle 2,754.9 3,782.4 4,231.1 1,325.4 2,060.9 4.2 14,168.9 Effective rainfall 1,767.6 2,388.5 2,624.2 966.5 1,269.6 1.7 9,018.1 Mean 236.7 308.5 176.7 60.6 105.1 70.6 958.2 Normal year 236.8 308.7 176.8 60.6 105.1 70.6 958.6 10-year cycle 368.3 473.4 274.6 98.0 160.8 118.5 1,503.6 Livestock water 64.5 52.1 48.9 11.7 17.4 5.0 199.6 Sum 3,197.7 4,307.9 4,554.6 1,435.1 2,239.1 127.7 15,872.1 Field water (KRC, 2016) Sum 3.4. AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT Some major issues in agricultural water management are: 1) the rehabilitation of existing agricultural reservoirs and irrigation canals, 2) the improvement of reservoir operation, 3) the improvement of irrigation efficiency, and 4) the improvement in efficiency of water use. The following are some suggestions to address these issues. 3.4.1. Rehabilitating Irrigation Facilities Many old and small reservoirs have become filled with silt and sand, thus significantly reducing their storage capacities. They often fail to supply water to paddy fields during the dry period. A few deteriorated dikes of reservoirs have collapsed during heavy storms and caused flooding damage downstream. Old earthen irrigation canal systems do not function well and have high maintenance costs. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 141
Dredging work needs to be done for those reservoirs that have lost more than 30 percent of their effective storage capacity. The rehabilitation or renewal of irrigation canal systems should be set as a high priority in order to save water and improve irrigation efficiency. 3.4.2. Reservoir Operation Reservoirs are operated through determining when and how much water is to be released for irrigation. KRC operates reservoirs based on the mean of recorded storage levels at any given time. When the present storage, presented as a percentage of the total effective storage, at a given time is equal to or greater than the mean, water is released at normal intake rates. Otherwise, the release rates are to be reduced by 20 to 40 percent of the normal rates. Reservoir operation studies showed that KRC therwise, the release rates are to be reduced by 20 to 40 percent climatic conditions. Sometimes too much water had been released, resulting in lower water storage levels later. In other cases, the stored water was not fully used before the monsoon season began. Several reservoir operation rules have been proposed, including 1) the adjusting of water release rates based on crop growth stages and storage levels in reservoirs, 2) the development of reservoir operations that are based on long and short term weather forecasting, and 3) the adjusting of water release rates to yield minimum storage levels before the monsoon season. Further efforts are needed to develop better reservoir operation rules. 3.4.3. Improving Irrigation Efficiency Irrigation efficiency is defined as being the ratio of beneficial water use in a paddy or upland fields to the water intake rates from the sources. Some water is not used due to delivery and management losses. Delivery loss results from infiltration and leakage along the irrigation canal systems, and management loss is the water not used in the paddy fields. These losses are often attributed to irrigation methods, scheduling, and field water management. It has been reported that upstream irrigation blocks or fields often receive 142 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA more water than those downstream. The non-uniform distribution of irrigation water causes irrigation efficiency to significantly decrease. Tele-metering and tele-control systems may help reduce uneven water distribution within a district by controlling hydraulic structures more systematically. Improved irrigation efficiency may save water to be used later. In this way, a 10 percent increase in irrigation efficiency may add up to almost one billion m 3 of additional water. 3.4.5. Increasing Water Use Efficiency Present irrigation scheduling is designed to supply water to fields whenever and however much is needed. When less water is given to crops, they are subject to water stress. However, crops respond to water stress differently depending on crop type and growth stage. Deficit irrigation methods may be applied when crops are less sensitive to water stress. Deficit irrigation means irrigating less water than needed during the growing periods while minimizing the reduction in crop yield in order to maximize water use efficiency (WUE). WUE is defined as the crop yield (kg) per crop evapotranspiration of 1 mm. To increase WUE, the irrigation scheduling for a crop is adjusted to the level where the yield loss is permissible. Normal irrigation scheduling is applied during the period when crops are sensitive to water stress, while reduced or no water is given when they are less sensitive. Extensive scientific effort is needed, however, to safely apply deficit irrigation to specific crops. 3.5. AGRICULTURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION 3.5.1. Overview As of 2013, total energy consumption in Korea was 210 million tons of oil equivalent (TOE), which is an increase of about 40 percent from 2000 levels due to a sharp increase in oil and electricity consumption. The agricultural and fishery sectors consume 3.3 million IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 143
TOE of energy (representing 1.6 percent of total energy consumption), which consists of 2.2 million TOE in oil consumption and 1.1 million TOE in electrical consumption, as shown in Table 3-4. <Table 3-4> Annual agricultural energy uses (unit: thousand TOE) Year Classification 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2013 Total Energy Consumption 75,107 121,962 149,852 170,854 195,587 210,247 Agriculture and forestry Sum Oils Electricity 1,813 (2.4%)* 1,687 (3.7%) 125 (1.5%) 3,224 (2.6) 2,934 (3.5) 290 (2.1) 4,069 (2.7) 3,600 (3.9) 456 (2.2) 3,385 (2.0) 2,755 (2.9) 603 (2.1) 3,201 (1.6) 2,333 (2.3) 864 (2.3) 3,310 (1.6) 2,183 (2.1) 1,123 (2.7) According to the Korea Rural Economy Institute (KREI), agricultural energy consumption can be broken down to 57.2% from oils, 35.0% from electricity, and 7.7% from coal. In terms of the uses of energy consumption, 55.3% of energy consumed is for operating farm machinery, heating and cooling greenhouses and livestock facilities, and 8.8% is for buildings and offices. The majority of energy is consumed for heating in greenhouses used to produce vegetables, flowers, and fruits. The patterns of agricultural energy consumption among different farms are shown in Table 3-5. Paddy farms consume 94% of their oils through the use of farm machinery and 90% of their electric energy through the drying and storing of grains. Electric energy is used mainly for heating in greenhouses. Fruit farms use 90% of their oils for farm machinery and 78% of electricity for storage. 144 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA <Table 3-5> Consumption types of oils and electricity in agricultural sectors Classification Oils Electricity Others Paddy farms Farm machinery 94% Vehicles 3% Drying, processing and storage 90% Greenhouse Farms Heating 95% Farm machinery 1% Heating 75% Wood Pallet for heating Fruit Farms Farm machinery 90% Vehicles 3% Storage 78% Orchard management 22% (KREI, 2013) 3.5.2. Paddy Farms By 2009, farm mechanization had increased to 91% of farming activity, up from 67% in 1991. In that same period, farmers labor hours decreased from 54 hours to 19 hours. Farm mechanization has greatly increased oil consumption during those years. According to KREI s survey of agricultural energy consumption, the average annual oil consumption can be broken down to 6,000 liters of diesel, 4,000 liters of kerosene and heavy oil, 4,000 liters of gasoline, and 40 million won of electrical use. The use of energy in paddy farms is shown in Table 3-6. Over 90% of diesel and gasoline is used for farm machinery, and 16% of kerosene and heavy oil is used for the machinery. Electric energy is used mainly for drying and processing. Energy Sources Diesel Kerosene, heavy oil, bunker C oil <Table 3-6> Energy consumption purposes at paddy farms (KREI, 2013) Farm machinery Drying and processing (unit: %) Storage Transportation Others Tax-free 93.7 4.2 0.0 1.3 0.8 Other 93.9 2.8 0.0 3.0 0.3 16.0 84.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 Gasoline 99.1 0 0.0 0.3 0.7 Electricity 8.2 36.5 18.0 0.0 37.7 IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 145
3.5.3. Greenhouse and Fruit Farms The annual energy consumption of greenhouse farms differs between vegetable and fruit growers. Tomato farms consume 31,000 liters of diesel and 26,000 liters of kerosene and heavy oils. Cucumber farms consume 22,000 liters of diesel and 12,000 liters of kerosene and heavy oils. Energy consumption among greenhouse farms increases proportionally with farm acreage, and for winter farming as well. Most energy is used for heating, making up 95% of the oils and electricity consumed. Fruit farms consume 90% of their oils in operating machinery and the majority of their electricity for storage and orchard management. Some farmers use village storage facilities, while two-thirds of the large fruit farms own refrigerating facilities. 146 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA Farms Tomato farms (87 household) Cucumber farms (93 households) Orchard farms (110 households) (KREI, 2013) <Table 3-7> Energy consumption purposes at fruit farms and vegetable farms Types of Energy Farm machinery Purposes of energy consumtion (%) Storage Transpotation Heating Others Diesel (tax-free) 3.5 0 0.5 91.2 0 Diesel (others) 0.8 0 0 99.2 0 Kerosene, heavy oil, bunker C oil 1.1 0 0 98.7 0.2 Gasoline 100 0 0 0 0 Electricity 27.5 2.2 0 64.3 6 Diesel (tax-free) 8.4 0 0.3 91.2 0.1 Diesel (others) 7.2 0 0 92.8 0 Kerosene, heavy oil, bunker C oil 1.3 0 0 98.7 0 휘발유 93.6 0 0 6.4 0 전기 ( 만원 ) 8.8 0 0 70.6 2.6 Diesel (tax-free) 92.5 0 6.4 0 1.2 Diesel (others) 89.6 0 12.4 0 0 Kerosene, heavy oil, bunker C oil 30 0 0 0 70 Gasoline 95.9 0 2.8 0.3 0.9 Electricity 2.1 77.6 0 14.1 6.2 3.5.4. Issues in Energy Consumption There are three major issues in agricultural energy consumption in Korea that must be addressed: 1) the use of only specific types of conventional energy, 2) inefficient energy consumption at aging and deteriorated greenhouses, and 3) the lack of interest among farmers in energy savings. Policies, in place since the 1980s, that provide for tax-free oils and cheaper electricity prices for farming have had the effect of discouraging the saving of energy and the use of alternative energy sources. The issue of the high cost of heating for greenhouse farming has still not been resolved. For example, cost of heating cost at rose IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 147
farms is 46% of the total farming expenses, 36% at green pepper farms, and 31% at paprika farms. Deteriorated vinyl houses are a major cause of high energy costs. 82 % of all vinyl houses are single vinyl houses, like rain shelters and other similar types, which do not have basic facilities to reduce energy consumption. Many glass greenhouses are also significantly aged and deteriorated, since 97% of them are more than ten years old. Increasing the efficiency in energy consumption of greenhouses is, therefore, an urgent task. 3.5.5. Uses of New Renewable Energy New renewable energy sources that may be applied to the agricultural sectors are geothermal heat, air hear, wood pallet and other bio-energy sources. MAFRA reported that 2,300 ha, or 16% of the 14,600 ha of heated greenhouses, is using new renewable energy, such as wood pallets and geothermal heating systems. However, farmers using wood pallets for heating are often not satisfied because it is less convenient than oil or electric heating. Furthermore, many farmers are not confident it is a cost-effective energy source. KREI reported that among surveyed greenhouse farmers who were willing to adopt new energy-saving facilities, most preferred multi-layer heat-retaining curtains, horizontal column boundaries, and geothermal heat pump systems. Nearly all surveyed farmers expressed their desire, in principle, to adopt the use of high heat-efficient facilities, but they stated that they were reluctant to do so because of high costs. Energy plants using livestock waste have recently been built and operated. They collect livestock waste treatment fees from stock farms, which are less than the direct operation costs for electricity and oils. Measures should be explored to promote those plants by offsetting high operation costs. MAFRA plans to reduce the percent of oil dependence in agricultural energy consumption from 91% in 2009 to 70% in 2020. It also plans to reduce the amount of tax-free oils from 1.25 million liters to 0.67 million liters. In order to achieve these goals, multi-layer heating curtains and air heat pump systems will be promoted, and new 148 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA renewable energy sources, like geothermal energy and the use of wood pallets, will also be subsidized to some extent. Waste heat sources, like warm drained water from power plants and factory heat, are also to be used for greenhouse heating through financial subsidies from MAFRA. Warm drained water from power plants costs 20% less than geothermal systems with similar energy-saving effects. Most of the warm water from power plants is not used and is just drained into the environment. Thus, there is high potential to make use of it for greenhouse heating. Vinyl house complexes should be built near power plants and other wasted heat sources. 3.6. USE OF FERTILIZERS AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS 3.6.1. Use of Fertilizers and Agricultural Chemicals Figure 3-6 depicts the use of fertilizers and agricultural chemicals from 2004 to 2014. The consumption of chemical fertilizers has increased from 162 kg/10a in 1970, to 285 kg/10a in 1980, and to 398kg/10a in 2000. In 2005, MAFRA terminated programs that provide financial subsidies for farmers to purchase chemical fertilizers. Instead, MAFRA has promoted livestock manure and organic fertilizer applications. As a result, chemical fertilizer applications decreased. Since 2011, the customized fertilization programs based on soil testing results of paddies and upland fields have been implemented. Chemical fertilizer use was reduced by 20%, from 311 kg/10a in 2008 to 258 kg/10a in 2014. The results were slightly less than the targeted 30% reduction in fertilizer applications; however, a reduction in chemical fertilizer use was achieved despite the fact that chemical fertilizer consumption in Korea is slightly more than in many other major countries. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 149
[Figure 3-6] Agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizer uses (MAFRA, 2016) Figure 3-6 shows the use of agricultural chemical in terms of the total chemical ingredient content sold to farmers by manufacturers. The average application rate increased from 10.4 kg/10a in 1998 to 13kg/10a in 2001. In 2014 it was at 10.7 kg/10a, which is slightly higher than in most other major countries. The reason for such high application rates of chemicals is that Korea has a higher prevalence of plant disease and insect pests due to the high temperatures and high humidity during the summer. In addition, farming characteristics particular to Korea, such as year-round cultivation and intensive farming, also contribute to this increased use of chemicals. Recent consumer trends toward preferring eco-friendly agricultural products, along with the intensification of food safety guidelines, have encouraged farmers to further reduce the application rates of agricultural chemicals. 3.6.2. Environment-Friendly Fertilizers Environment-friendly fertilizers are organic fertilizers and soil conditioners that are applied at the exact requirement rates, based on the results of soil testing. Soil testing results for paddy fields and upland fields are available at the National Soil Information System, and they are used to help farmers to learn about fertilizers that are tailored for 150 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA their lands. MAFRA plans to reach a new target for organic content of soil in cultivated land to be 30g/kg by increasing the amount of organic fertilizer to 300,000 tons. Organic fertilizers are made through the reclamation of byproducts from agriculture and animal husbandry. The dumping of livestock waste in the ocean has been prohibited. As a result, the amount of waste dumped in the ocean has been reduced, from 2.75 million tons in 2005 to 770,000 tons in 2011. In order to properly manage livestock waste, all waste is to be converted to manure and liquefied fertilizer and adequately applied to cultivated lands. And green manure crops, such as hairy vetch, Chinese milk vetch, and rye, should be raised in cultivated lands. These practices would help reduce the application of chemical fertilizers. However, environmental pollution resulting from over-applications of manure and liquefied fertilizer has been of great concern. A recent survey on the application of liquefied fertilizers from livestock waste reclamation facilities showed that actual application rates were significantly higher than the soil testing results. The reason for such practices was due to the fact that the areas of cultivated land targeted for application were much less than the amount of liquefied fertilizer produced, and that farmers preferred to apply enough fertilizer for their lands. 3.6.4. Issues in Fertilizer and Chemical Applications Surveys of the chemical composition of soil content in paddy fields and upland fields showed that their soil is far from good for cultivation. Some component contents, such as available phosphorus and exchangeable calcium, significantly exceeded the standard levels, while high sodium concentrations were frequently observed in greenhouse soils. Paddy soils lacked 50% of the standard organic matter contents, and the available silicic acid contents were 68%. Soils in upland fields were in a state of acidification, as the average ph level was 6.1. They were also short of organic matter contents, being only 45% of the standard. It is therefore suggested that good fertilization practices, based on continuous soil testing, be implemented. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 151
3.7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This chapter has reviewed the present status of, and future prospects for, the resources for agricultural productivity, such as agricultural land and water, energy, fertilizers, and chemicals. It presented the challenges to conserving and sustainably utilizing the limited agricultural resources in order to maintain future productivity. Some of the conclusions of this chapter are as follows: 1. A major constraint in the sustainable management of water resources is the high rate of water intake from dams, streams, and rivers and from groundwater for beneficial uses, such as agricultural, domestic, and industrial uses. The increasing intake rates of groundwater have caused the decrease in the groundwater levels. Many stream reaches in small watersheds have completely dried out during dry periods. 2. Annual agricultural water use is about 16 billion m 3, or 62% of the total water withdrawal for beneficial uses. Most of the water is used for paddy irrigation. However, during the past ten years, water shortages have been experienced locally during droughts. 3. About seventy percent of existing reservoirs are older than 50 years old, and many have lost their original storage capacity due to silting. Deteriorated reservoir dikes need rehabilitating, and reservoirs need to be dredged. The aim of modernizing the irrigation canal systems is to use water more efficiently. 4. Paddy fields have low irrigation efficiency because of flood irrigation practices. Improper irrigation management can be seen through significant variations in the distribution of irrigation water between upstream and downstream, and also through the uneven water supply between fields. Efforts are needed to improve irrigation efficiency. 5. Regulated deficit irrigation practices are needed to increase water use efficiency. Efficient water use is important because the country has at times experienced a lack of agricultural water resources. 6. Discounts provided to farmers on their agricultural oil and electricity bills have discouraged farmers from exploring alternative energy sources for heating. Efforts are 152 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
3. USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND AND WATER, ENERGY, AND CHEMICALS FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION IN KOREA needed to promote renewable energy sources for agricultural uses. 7. The consumption of agricultural chemicals has significantly decreased to a level comparable with many other major countries. Organic fertilizers are widely used, but they are not yet being used at the proper levels, as indicated by soil testing results. <SCIENTIFIC TECHNOLOGY TO BE DEVELOPED FOR PROBLEM SOLVING> (1) Development of multi-disciplined, integrated technology for improving irrigation efficiency - Computer-aided technology is important to telemetering and the control of irrigation systems. Field monitoring and telecommunication systems have been applied, but the software needed to use the monitored results have not been fully developed. As a result, these have not contributed much to improving irrigation efficiency. - Field water management practices need improving. Except in heavy storms, farmers rarely control inlets and drain outlets in their fields for water management. Applicable field techniques are needed. - Techniques for adopting regulated deficit irrigation methods need to be developed for field crops and vegetables. (2) Agricultural Energy Consumption - On-site techniques for improving the energy efficiency of greenhouse heating need to be developed. - Comprehensive research is needed to adapt renewable energy sources for use in heating greenhouses at the level of farms or complexes. Consumption of new energy will require the development of not only new hardware, but also new software techniques as well. (3) Use of Agricultural Chemicals - On-site techniques are to be developed to efficiently and safely produce manure and liquefied fertilizer from livestock waste. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 153
REFERENCES Kim, Y. J., S. Y. Park, H. S. Han and Y G. Park. The current status of energy use and policy in agriculture and rural communities. Vol. 1. The Rural Economy Institure. (2013). Kim, Y. J., S. Y. Park, H. S. Han and Y G. Park. The current status of energy use and policy in agriculture and rural communities. Vol. 2. The Rural Economy Institure. (2014). Korea Rural Community Corporation. http://rims.ekr.or.kr (2016). Korea Meteorological Administration. http://www.kma.go.kr (2016). Korea Water Resources Corporation. http://www.kwater.or.kr (2016). Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Agriculture, food and rural affairs statistics yearbook. 377p. (2015). Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs and Korea Rural Community Corporation. Statistical yearbook of land and water development for agriculture. 668p. (2013). Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport. http://www.molit.go.kr (2016). Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy and Korea Energy Economics Institute. Yearbook of energy statistics. 357p. (2014). Park, D. et al. Policy research on new renewable energy in agricultural sector. Science and Technology Policy Institute. 59p. (2015). Presidential Commission on Sustainable Development, Republic of Korea. Sustainable water management policy. 357p. (2005). 154 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4 Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea 4.1. The economics of food Although the macro-analysis of food waste may include all the misusages of food materials outside of food consumption for example, use for feedstuff and bioenergy production this chapter will discuss the food loss and waste taking place within the food supply chain. Food loss and waste take place at every step of the process, from agricultural production to consumption. It includes losses during the harvest, post-harvest loss, processing and distribution losses, and waste caused during consumption. Table 4-1 shows food loss and waste at each step of the food chain. <Table 4-1> Food loss and waste taking place in the food chain According to an FAO report, the total amount of food waste in the world was estimated to be 32% of world food production in 2009, and 24% of the total food energy produced (Lipinski et. al., 2013). One third of the harvested edible parts of food produce is lost and wasted, which amounts to 1.3 billion tons. In the advanced countries, food waste takes place mainly during the consumption stage (10.3-12.6%), while in the developing countries the majority of loss takes place during the post-harvest management (18-25.2%). The IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 155
regions with the highest food loss are in Africa and Central Asia, with an estimated 36% of food lost or wasted. In these areas of the world consumption stage food losses are relatively low (2.6-5.5%). Developing countries have, in general, low-level post-harvest technology and inadequate storage facilities, causing food shortages that result in less waste during consumption. Large amounts of food are wasted in the rich countries, where edible food is thrown away (HLPE, 2014). Figure 4-1 shows that the regions with the highest amount of food waste are North America and Australia, where total per capita food waste is roughly 298kg per year and 115kg per capita per year is wasted at the consumption stage. This group accounts for 400 million people. The next highest groups include Russia and the EU (281kg/year) and Korea, China, and Japan (236kg/year), and their consumption stage food waste is 94kg/year and 73kg/year, respectively. The rest of the world has relatively low food waste at the consumption stage, below 33kg/year. Consequently, the food waste problem of the advanced countries is serious, and their food waste at the consumption stage should be reduced. (Chae et. al., 2016) (HLPE, 2014) [Figure 4-1] Food loss and waste per capita in the different world regions 156 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea In the case of Korea, food loss and waste becomes an important issue when economic growth provides an abundance of food. With the onset of economic growth, Korea was able to import, without limit, food that had previously been in short supply, and thus began an era of severe food waste. Before the 1970s, when there was an acute food shortage, the calorie intake estimated by the national food consumption survey surpassed the calorie supply calculated by the national food balance sheet (Lee, C.H. et al., 1988). (Figure 4-2) The real intake may have exceeded the supplied amount because people consumed various famine foods during food shortages. When sufficient food was imported, energy supply exceeded energy intake, and intake was estimated to be 70% of the supplied amount in the late 1980s. The gap between the food supply and the real intake indicates the amount of food loss, mostly by food waste. This severe food waste in Korea results in about 30% of food being thrown away (Lee et. al., 2014). [Figure 4-2] Changes in Daily Energy Supply and Intake per Person in South Korea IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 157
4.2. Postharvest practices and the state of food loss in Korea The rapid industrialization and urbanization of Korea in the 1970-80s resulted in the separation of the places where food is consumed from where food is produced. After the harvest, foods are now stored for a long time and transported across long distances before being consumed. For instance, few people pick cabbage from the field to prepare kimchi in their homes. Cabbages are harvested and transported to a vegetable market for auction, and then they are distributed to wholesale markets and retail markets where they finally reach the consumer. (Figure 4-3) [Figure 4-3] Post-harvest management and distribution procedure http://db.gba.go.kr/sub02/sub01_view.php?info_no=585&kind_code=16 There are three ways fresh foods produced from agriculture, fisheries, and animal husbandry are consumed: (1) through direct distribution and consumption for cooking by the consumer, (2) through processed food made by food industries, and (3) through foods served by restaurants and institutions, such as schools. Food loss and waste occurs in all of these processes of consumption. Postharvest loss accounts for the fresh produce lost between harvest and the consumer s kitchen, the restaurant, and food industries. 158 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea 4.2.1. Postharvest technology of rice Rice is the staple food for Koreans. Rice accounts for 80% of the 5 million tons of grain produced in Korea. Drying is an essential part of the postharvest process. Although it depends on the weather conditions, at the time of harvest rice generally has a moisture content of approximately 20%. This is reduced to 16% in the field after harvesting and before threshing. The threshed whole rice, with the hull, is then dried either in the sun or in a drier, reducing the moisture content to 13%, and stored in a sack. It is milled just before consumption in order to discard the hull. The hull makes up 40-50% of the volume and 20% of the weight of threshed whole rice. Hulled rice, so-called brown rice, contains 8% of bran. Polished rice is made by removing all the bran during the milling process. Technology conventionally used in the postharvest processing of rice is labor-intensive and costly while at the same time producing high loss. The cost of the postharvest management of rice in Korea is estimated to be 18% of the total price of rice, compared with only 4-5% in the US. To solve this problem, Korea began building rice processing complexes (RPC) from the early 1980s and, by 2000, had built over 400 RPCs throughout the country. Rice harvested by combiner is transported and unloaded at the RPCs, where it is cleaned, dried, milled, and packaged. The end result of the RPC is packaged polished rice (Park and Lee, 2008). The growth of microorganisms and mites in rice is suppressed by bringing its moisture content below 13%, and the growth and reproduction of all insects in rice is stopped by bringing the moisture content under 10%. When the moisture content exceeds 16%, the respiration rate rapidly increases and the rice deteriorates. When the storage temperature is low, the respiration rate decreases and the damage from microorganisms and insects can be controlled. In general, insect activity is suppressed at below 15 and the damage from beetles is controlled at below 5. The growth of mold is stopped at below 0. Fumigation can control the damage to grains from insects and mites, mainly by methyl bromide and phosphine. However, the use of halogen compounds, like methyl bromide, is conditionally banned because of the destruction they cause to the ozone layer in the atmosphere. Irradiation technology will replace fumigation methods in the future (Park and IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 159
Lee, 2008). The postharvest loss of grains in the developing countries, where drying facilities and storage warehouses are not well equipped, reaches up to 20-50%. Between 7 to 16% of sun-dried rice breaks during the milling process, while only 3% of the rice dried with a hot-air drier breaks. 4.2.2. Postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables The size of the horticultural industry in Korea is estimated to be 15 trillion Won (USD 13.6 billion). The postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables is estimated to be 3 trillion Won, or 20-30% of the total production, which is relatively higher than those of most other advanced countries (5-20%). The rate of postharvest loss varies depending on the quality of the produce, the temperature and humidity level at harvest, and the storage and transportation conditions. Perishable foods, like lettuce, mushrooms, and strawberries, can be stored for a week and the loss-rate reaches up to 50%, while fruits like apples, pears, oranges, and nuts can be kept for 2-4 weeks or longer, and the loss-rate is 10-20%. Table 4-2 provides the estimated loss-rate that occurs at different stages of the supply chain (Chae, 2016) <Table 4-2> loss-rate of vegetables in the supply chain Stages in supply chain Item storage sorting & packaging loading wholesale retail total(%) Radish - 6.0 12.0 10.1 5.9 34 Cabbage- 6.5 13.0 11.5 7.1 38.1 Red pepper 7.0 2.3 2.8 3.5 4.8 20.4 Garlic 9.1 3.1 1.8 6.3 6.4 26.7 Onion 5.4 6.5 3.4 5.4 3.4 24.1 (source: Chae, 2016) 160 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea Table 4-3 shows the estimated cost of postharvest loss in Korea in 2013 for potatoes, garlic, red peppers, and onions. In the case of potatoes, the total amount produced in Korea was 727,000 tons. Applying the loss-rate of 25%, the total amount of postharvest loss was 181,750 tons, or the equivalent to 157.4 billion Won. The total cost of loss among the four major vegetables was estimated to be 2.1 trillion Won. <Table 4-3> Estimated costs of postharvest loss for major vegetables produced in Korea Potato Garlic Red-pepper Onion Total Production 1) (ton/year) 727,000 412,000 118,000 1,294,000 Loss-rate (%) 25 2) 26.7 3) 20.4 3) 24.1 3) Loss amount(ton/year) 181,750 110,004 24,072 311,854 Price(won/kg) 4) 866 14,166 2,516 1,210 Loss cost(0.1bil.won) 1,574 15,583 605 3,773 (Source: Chae, 2016) 4.2.3. Food loss during processing and distribution Food loss takes place during the transportation, processing and distribution stages after postharvest management. Considerable amounts of processed foods are wasted due to the expiration of sales dates. According to a report by the Korea Food Security Research Foundation (Korean Food Professional Engineers Association, 2011), a survey of 35 food manufacturers showed that the rate of goods returned to the manufacturers is estimated to be 1.45%. The food items that had a high rate of return by value were tea, processed fish paste, beverages, bread/rice cake, chocolate/cocoa products, while the items that were highest by volume were beverages, bread/rice cake, sugars (glucose, syrup and oligosaccharides), seasonings, and tea. The amount of processed food wasted during distribution and marketing in 2009 was estimated to be 400,000 tons, costing 580 billion Won. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 161
4.2.4. Food waste at the consumption stage The amount of food waste at the consumption stage is estimated to be 13,209 tons per day, which comes to roughly 5 million tons per year in Korea (as of 2012 ). Food waste accounts for 28% of the total weight of collected garbage. 57% of food waste comes from cooking, 30% from disposal after meals, 9% from storage in the kitchen, and 4% from left food. According to a nationwide survey conducted in 2011-12, the average food waste per person was 311.3g per day, with 54% (166.7g per person per day) being household waste and 46% (144.7g per person per day) being non-household waste (ME, 2013). The amount of food waste varied with the type of house: row house, single house, apartment, tenement house, or non-residence house. The waste from fruits and vegetables took up half of the total waste, with cereals and fish/meat being the next largest categories. In the non-household waste, restaurants were the largest producers, at 882.3g per customer. This was followed by hotels at 314.7g per person and educational institutes at 196.7g per person. The types of food most wasted were vegetables, cereals, and fruits in that order. The survey indicated that 70% of food waste in Korea comes from households and small-scale restaurants, 16% from large-scale restaurants, 10% from institutions, and 4% from distribution. 4.3. Technology to reduce food loss and waste In order to reduce food loss and waste, better understanding of the physiology that food materials undergo after harvest and during storage is needed. Moreover, methods to control the ripening, spoilage and deterioration of quality should be better understood. Knowing about water activity and selecting the proper drying method is essential to preventing microbial growth and resulting putrefaction, both of which are determined by the moisture content. At the production site, minimal processing is practiced in order to facilitate the distribution of fresh food and to reduce the amount of food waste at the consumption site. Chemical preservation using sugar, salt, vinegar, and other preservatives, thermal treatment, 162 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea cold-chain system, irradiation, packaging, and the application of the internet of things (IoT) can all be used to reduce food loss and waste. Another way of reducing food waste is to convert food waste to animal feed, compost, and an energy source. In Korea, salting and fermentation, together with drying, are the most widely used traditional food preservation technologies. Korean kimchi (fermented vegetables), jotkal (fermented fish), and jang (fermented soybeans) are globally known. Canning was invented in Europe in the 19th century and opened the world an era of canning in the 20th century. Since the mid 20th century, the development of the refrigerator, by applying theories of thermodynamics, has led the world into an era of frozen food. Korea achieved a nationwide cold-chain system by installing refrigerators in every household by the 1980s. The quality of food can be kept for a long time by using refrigerators and freezers, which retard the growth of spoilage and food-poisoning microorganisms. However, this method requires large amounts of electric energy to continuously operate the cooling machine. To solve this problem, irradiation of food is considered to be a future novel form of food preservation technology. 4.3.1. Food irradiation technology Ionizing irradiation of food is considered the most safe and economic technology for food preservation presently known. In the future, packaged foods will be sterilized by irradiating with high-energy waves and kept at room temperature for consumption. We will see the era of irradiated food in the near future. Irradiation technology utilizes a non-thermal process to sterilize food in order to kill bacteria, molds, and parasites in the food, and also to suppress sprouting, control ripening, and to kill insects by using radiation energy (gamma rays, beta rays, and X-rays). The UN FAO and WHO declared in 1980 that all foods irradiated under 10kGy (1kGy=100rad=1J/kg) are safe, and the Joint Expert Group Meeting in 1997 reported that no harmful substances are formed by irradiation up to 70kGy (Lee, 1998). As of 2015, over 50 countries permit food irradiation by law, and CODEX allows food irradiation of up to 10kGy for all foods. In the US, about 13 million tons of fresh fruits and vegetables are irradiated to improve IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 163
keeping quality and prevent insect damage. Korean food law defines food irradiation as a technology to suppress sprouting, to sterilize microorganisms, to kill insects, and to control the ripening process of foods by using radiation from Co 60 gamma rays and beta rays from electron accelerators. There are 28 food items permitted for irradiation, including potatoes, onions, garlic, chestnuts, fresh and dried mushrooms, egg powder, cereals, pulses and their powder, starches, dried meats, fish, shellfish, crustacean powder, soybean paste, kochujang, soy sauce powder, dried vegetables, yeast and yeast foods, algae and seaweeds, aloe powder, ginseng products, dried spices and their products, seasonings, sauces, tea extracts, dried teas, and hospital patients foods. Each permitted food has a specific dose level (Chae et.al., 2016). The effect of irradiation on food is very similar to that of heat treatment. Heat above 6 5 kills living organisms because of enzyme inactivation caused by protein denaturation. Heating up to 100 kills all insects and most microorganisms. The browning reaction takes place at 150, and burning and carbonization take place at 300, at which point carcinogens can be formed. Animals cannot survive at 100 rad. Irradiation at 100kGy suppresses sprouting in potatoes, onions, and garlic. Insects are killed by irradiation at 1kGy, and microorganisms are sterilized at 10kGy. Irradiation at 100kGy results in discoloration and the loss of flavor of food, which causes it to lose eating quality. Irradiation at over 200kGy causes the formation of harmful substances and possibly induces radiation in the food. No one heats food until it is burnt and carbonized. In the same manner, no one irradiates food until it loses flavor and changes color. According to an estimate of the benefits of irradiation technology for Korea, when it is widely used on all the permitted food items, it will be able to save 1.125 trillion won of fresh food waste, 89.9 billion won of dried foods, like tea and spices, that are wasted during the marketing of the items, and 193.1 billion won of the waste of animal and fishery products (Lee et. al., 2013). Food irradiation is an environmentally friendly technology that leaves no by-products, and it is a simple and economic method when compared to thermal and chemical sterilization processes. The conventional fumigant, methyl bromide, is blamed for the destruction of the ozone layer in the atmosphere, and the Montreal Protocol of 1997 164 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea conditionally banned the use of halogen compounds. Irradiation is considered to be a novel method to replace methyl bromide in the quarantine process of imported fruits and vegetables. Although food irradiation is an essential technology to overcome future global food crises by reducing food loss, its use is hindered by consumers negative perceptions. In 2010, the strong demands of some NGO groups in Korea caused the labeling regulation on irradiated foods to be expanded to all foods which use irradiated ingredients. Since food manufacturers avoid the labeling of irradiated foods on their products, irradiation technology has been practically eliminated from the market. This useful food preservation technology has been abandoned because consumers misunderstand it and perceive it as being unsafe. Scientists need to educate consumers and properly communicate the benefits of the technology, and the government needs to show a firm will to put the technology into use. 4.4. System innovation for the reduction of food waste The factors causing food loss and waste are the lack of storage technology and facilities, ignorance and carelessness of the personnel in the supply chain, imperfection and inconsistency of law, and unreasonable regulatory controls by food safety authorities. The reduction of food loss and waste requires the concerted efforts of farmers, food manufacturers, feed and compost producers, distributors, restaurants and institutions, transporters, and consumers, and the role of the government, especially the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, the Food and Drug Administration, and the Ministry of Environment, is also important. Food loss and waste can be remarkably reduced by well-established systems and regulations. Edible food waste can be utilized in food banks and other social services, and non-edible wastes can be used for feedstuff and compost, and further to industrial use through bioenergy and biopolymer production. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 165
4.4.1. Innovations in food safety management systems The nature of the relationship between food safety and food security is both collaborating as well as conflicting. When food is in short supply, there is no room for considering safety. On the other hand, if it is not safe, even piles of food are of no use and are just waste. When there is a shortage of food, food safety levels are lowered, while if food safety levels go up, food availability goes down. Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the food safety level through social consensus and by considering food security. (1) Hazard vs. risk As instrumental analytical technology has developed rapidly since 1960, the number of detectable compounds has increased and the detection limit has decreased from the milligram level to the microgram level and further to the nano-gram level. When the detection limit was at the microgram level, the detection of heavy metals, pesticides, and other hazardous compounds meant risk. When the detection limit is lowered to the microor nano-gram level, all compounds existing in nature are detectable, and most of the detected compounds do not pose any harmful effect in such low concentrations. If the detection of hazardous compounds at such a low concentration is cause for concern, then there is nothing to eat. The old concept of equating detection with risk still prevails in today s consumers who live in the era of highly advanced science. This knowledge gap causes severe food waste and loss. (2) Sell-by date labeling The storage life of food contains several stages of quality change from manufacturing to consumption. As shown in Figure 4-4, food keeps its best quality for a certain period of time before it shows a just noticeable difference (JND) (Best before date). Afterwards it takes some time before it loses the marketable quality, which is called the use-by date. After passing marketable quality, food is still edible until the expiration date before it is spoiled. The expiration date is much longer than the use-by date. Korean food regulations require most processed foods to be labeled with a sell-by date, which is set at 166 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea 70% of the best-before date. For example, if the best before date of pasteurized milk is 10 days in the refrigerator, the sell-by date is set at 7 days after manufacturing. (Chae, 2016) [Figure 4-4] The concepts of sell-by date, use-by date, and expiration date. According to a report by the Korea Consumer Agency, in the case of milk, which has a labeled sell-by date that is 5-7 days after production, it can be consumed for 30 days after the expiration of the sell-by date if it is stored in the proper conditions suggested by the producer. Frozen dumplings, which have a sell-by date that is set 90 days after manufacturing, can be consumed for 25 days after the expiration date if kept in the freezer. Frozen bakery products are safe 20 days after and dried noodles 50 days after the sell-by dates (Korea Consumer Agency, 2010). Large amounts of food are wasted in households and restaurants because of Korean consumers confusing the sell-by date as the use-by date. Korean consumers throw away, as if spoiled, foods that have past their sell-by dates without considering the safety of the food. Korea is the only country where the sell-by date is used for labeling. Most countries, such as the US, Japan, the EU and Australia, apply the use-by date for labeling, and in many cases both the best-before date and the use-by date are labeled. Although Korea imports most of its food from abroad, due to its low food self-sufficiency, and considering its need to reduce food loss and waste, it is odd that Korea uses the shortest and most wasteful dating system. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 167
It is necessary to educate people about the food dating system to correct the misunderstanding that foods past the sell-by date are expired foods and are spoiled food. Expiring of the sell-by date means do not sell the food ; it does not mean do not eat the food. It is necessary to mandate the labeling of non-perishable foods with both the sell-by date and the use-by date, so as to utilize foods past their sell-by dates for reduced price sales and for food bank donations. 4.4.2. Food Bank activity in Korea A food bank is a philanthropic organization that collects food from food industries and individuals and donates it to needy people. The first food banks in Korea were established in four districts, including Seoul, in 1998 in response to the IMF Financial Crisis, and there are presently 441 offices open throughout the country. Both national and provincial food banks have been established, and the Ministry of Health and Welfare supervises the operation of 280 food banks and 127 food. They collect excess foods from food industries, distributors, and individuals and donate it to poor children, the aged, and disabled people. The amount donated to the bank has reached the equivalent of 155.1 billion won (about USD 150 million); the largest donation, 75.7 billion won, comes from food industries. In 2015, the total number of recipients was 12,924. The largest recipient group was low-income people who were supported by the National Basic Livelihood Security Act. This clearly shows that food banks are an effective social welfare system. According to a survey of food bank users regarding the functions of the food banks and their practices, recipients most often responded that they saved on food expenses (55.8%) and reduced the experience of hunger (16.6%), and a majority wanted food banks to expand their activities. This indicates that food banks are functioning as an important resource for low-income people (Kang et al. 2005). Food banks work not only to promote social welfare, but they also work to reduce food waste. There has been little growth in food bank activity in Korea, mainly because many people believe that foods close to the sell-by date are not safe to eat. The Food Donation Activation Act was passed in 2006, and it protects food donators from being legally 168 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea responsible for unintended food safety accidents. Although donators are protected by law, food industries are reluctant to donate for fear that the company might gain a bad image in the event a food safety accident were to ever occur (Chae et al. 2016). 4.4.3. Governmental efforts to reduce food loss and waste Food waste in Korea is augmented by cultural traditions, such as the belief that serving an abundant amount of food is a good virtue and the frequent use of soups in meals. A waste management law forbidding the disposal of food waste in the soil was enacted in 1997 to prevent bad smells and overflows of sewage. The amount of reusable food waste was increased through the implementation in 2005 of a separated garbage disposal system. The Korean government launched in 2008 the Low-CO2 Green Development policy to reduce green-house gas production by turning waste and biomass into an energy resource. In 2009, the Ministry of Environment set a weight-based taxation system for food waste, which has become a model for other governments. Furthermore, the Ministry has made guidelines to reduce food waste in individual households and at restaurants, and it operates programs to reduce food waste in collaboration with other ministries (the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, etc.). (1) Weight-base food waste tax The Ministry of Environment has implemented a nationwide weight-based food waste tax since 2013. Annually, disposal of food waste in Korea costs 800 million won and it creates a total economic loss of 20 billion won. The Ministry predicts a savings of 160 million won in disposal costs and the creation of an additional economic gain of 5 billion won annually if the weight-based food waste tax reduces of the country s total food waste by 20%. In fact, the average household food waste tax was reduced by 57.2%, from 1,500 won/month to 641 won/month, and the amount of food waste was reduced by 19% since the implementation of weight-based food waste tax in December of 2012. The Korea Environment Cooperation organization uploads the details of this program and its gains on its Comprehensive Countermeasures against Food Waste blog on its website. (http://blog.daum.net/hellopolicy/6983445). IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 169
(2) Nationwide consumer education The Ministry of Environment conducts a nationwide Food Waste Reducing Movement, whose slogan is: Reducing food waste is a great action to save the earth. In addition to implementing the weight-based food waste tax system, the Ministry provides detailed measures and action plans to reduce food waste in the home and at restaurants. The Ministry s internet home page provides checklists that help consumer to reduce food waste at the stages of food purchasing, cooking, consumption, and disposal (http://www.me.go.kr/home/file). They also publish and distribute related booklets, including the 101 Action Plan to Reduce Food Waste. Korea Food Education Network is a corporation established by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs to improve the dietary life of the people through education of food and nutrition, thereby enhancing health and environmental preservation and while at the same time stimulating agriculture and fisheries in the rural areas. The network works for the education of a wholesome dietary life through the district networks in Seoul, Pusan, Kwangju, Kyunggi, Kangwon, Chungbuk, and other regions across Korea. The network holds events such as the Dietary Life Fair, the Day of Family Meal Table, and other activities such as the Education Support Center for Dietary Life of MAFRA. The Network defines a wholesome dietary life as reducing the use of energy and resources (environment), practicing a Korean style dietary life of balanced nutrition (health), and caring for others and nature (consideration), and it endeavors to spread this message in communities across the nation (www.greentable.or.kr). 170 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
4. Post-harvest practices and food waste in Korea <Science and technology needed to solve the problems> (1) Expansion of the use of irradiation technology through proper consumer understanding. (2) Technology innovation for efficient conversion of food waste into feed and compost. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 171
References Chae, H. J., Rhee, S. J., Lee, C. H., Reducing Food Waste, Sikanyeon Publishing (2016) HLPE, Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems, A report of the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, Rome (2014) Kang H. S., Hong, M. N., Yang, I. S., Cho, M. N. and Kim C. J., The status and characteristics of food bank user in governmental and private food banks, Korean J. Community Nutrition, 10:224-233 (2005) Korea Consumer Agency, Repot on the consumption propriety survey on sell-by date expired foods (2010) Korean Food Professional Engineers Association, Present status and reduction measures of food waste by sell-by date expiration, Korea Food Security Research Foundation (2011) Lee, C. H. (Ed.), Acceptance and Trading on Irradiated Foods, Korea University Press (1998) Lee, C. H., Joo, Y. J., Ahn, K. O. and Ryu, S. S., The changes in the dietry pattern and health and nutritional status of Korean during the last one century. Korean J. Dietary Culture, 3(4):397-406. (1988) Lee, C. H., Moon, H. P., Kim, Y. T., Kim, Rhee, S. J. and Lee, G. I., Food Self-sufficiency, Condition for an Advanced Country, Sikanyeon publishing (2014) Lee, J. E., Rhee, S. J. and Lee, C. H., Economic analysis of irradiation technology of food, Food Science and Industry, 46(2), 58-64 (2013) Lipinski, B., Hanson, C., Lomax, J., Kitinoja, L., Waite, R. and Searchinger, T., Reducing food loss and waste, Installment 2 of "Creating a Sustainable Food Future". Working Paper, Washington DC, World Resource Institute (2013) Ministry of Environment, Occurrence of garbage and its disposal practices in Korea, Korea Environment Corporation (2013) Park, H. J. and Lee, C. H., Food Preservation, Korea University Press (2008) 172 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5 Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture 5.1. Climate change in Korea According to the annual climatological report of the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA), average annual temperatures in Korea have been gradually rising (Figure 5-1). The average temperature before 2000 was relatively low, but it has been steadily rising since 2013. By analyzing this trend in rising annual average temperatures, it is clear that overall temperatures in Korea are slowly but steadily increasing. (Source: KMA, 2015). [Figure 5-1] Annual mean temperatures in Korea According to the RDA (Rural Development Administration) scenario, based on this current trend the average temperature of Korea by 2050, will have increased by a whopping 3.2 from the current average temperature of 12.3. Over the next 30 years, IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 173
the annual rainfall will have increased by 16%. Most regions of Korea would, by that time, become subtropical zones, with the exception of inland areas. As storms and typhoons move across regions with high temperature conditions (such as warm sea surfaces and high heat content in the oceans), they use this latent heat to maintain strength, causing a greater amount of damage to surrounding areas. Therefore, the increase in sea surface temperatures due to climate change will eventually create the conditions that lead to a greater frequency and intensity of typhoons near Korea, causing incalculable damage in the future (Figure 5-2). (Source: National Typhoon center, 2015). [Figure 5-2] Frequency of typhoon by month 5.2. Impacts of climate change on agricultural production and crop yield Korea is geographically located in the temperate climate zone of the mid-latitude (latitude 37 degrees north) with four distinct seasons. However, due to climate change, signs of a subtropical climate are appearing throughout the Korean peninsula. From the map showing 174 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture the northern limit of the cultivation of various crops published by the RDA, it can be seen that, for most crops, the geographical range within which the crop can be grown is gradually expanding northward (Figure 5-3). Especially in case of green tea, which has seen the largest variation, Boseong was a major production region in 1980, but in the 2010, it was being grown in Goseong, Gangwon Province, in the northern end of South Korea. Currently the subtropical regions in Korea are the whole area of the southern coast, Jeju Island, and Pohang city. The change in climate has considerably influenced the agricultural sector. The area of warm temperate plants is being expanded, while at the same time the reach of subtropical pests is growing and that of cold-weather pests is decreasing. The region suitable for fruit cultivation has moved north, suggesting a general shift of the crops map due to the climate change. Therefore, developing the technology needed to deal with tropical and subtropical crops is required. [Figure 5-3] Climate change-induced alterations in suitable cultivation areas for major crops and fishes (Source: Rural Development Administration, 2014). IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 175
The climate can be described as an important agricultural resource in that it is a crucial factor in determining the types of crops and cultivation period, productivity, quality of crops, and so on. The impact of climate change on the agricultural sector is not easy to identify through formal characteristics because it varies widely depending on the climate resources affected, such as temperature, rainfall, and insolation. The positive effects of climate change may include the expansion growth and possible cultivation periods of crops, the expansion of the number of new species that are able to be cultivated in Korea, and the reduction of heating costs for the cultivation of crops under structures. At the same time, the negative effects would probably include a decrease of crop yields and an increase in crop deterioration due to high temperatures, a decrease of soil fertility due to degradation of the soil s organic matters, an increase of pests and weed growth, and so on. Other effects are much more complex. For example, the rise in temperature is due to the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which, in one aspect, has facilitated photosynthesis that is positive for the growth of crops. However, the rise in temperatures has not only shortened the growth duration of crops, but it has also reduced agricultural production by increasing the breathing quantity and has led to the deterioration of quality. Therefore, even if the photosynthetic rate is high, a productivity growth couldn't be expected when the rate of respiration is high. In addition, the excessive rise in temperature can lead to damaging the plant s metabolic system, even if the temperature is temporary and localized. Furthermore, an increase in temperature has also caused an increase in soil microbes, lowering the organic matter contents accumulated in the soil by promoting the decomposition of the organic matter, and for this reason, the rise in soil temperature will evaporate soil moisture and cause a scarcity of moisture. The rise in sea levels caused by global warming causes water shortages through the salinization of land water and it gives rise to troubles for people, agriculture, and coastal ecosystems. Since a quarter of humanity lives along the coast, according to an announcement made by the WHO in 2005, 10% of the world s water supply will be in jeopardy, especially in the developing countries. Thus, if a change in the incidence and intensity of extreme weather events, like a sudden rise in the sea level, exceeds the net 176 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture stress of natural ecosystems, it is expected to have negative influences on human life, such as causing health problems, as well as on the natural world. Furthermore, it will expand the area suffering from poor water due to the extreme variability of rainfall, and increase the risk of flooding caused by coastal erosion and sea flooding. Crop yields will be expected to decrease because of these reasons. In Korea, there exists an imbalance in the supply and demand of vegetables due to abnormal weather, such as heavy rains and heat waves, caused by climate change. In the short term, this has led to the repeated occurrence of price surges. However, as abnormal weather occurs more frequently, the price instability of agricultural products is expected to be intensified in the future. With poor harvests due to abnormal weather, the price of Chinese cabbage (10kg product basis) stood at 6,800 won in August of 2010, but then soared to 17,800 won, approximately 2.6 times its previous price, in September of 2010. To underscore this price volatility, the price of Chinese cabbage subsequently dropped to 3,300 won by early July 2011, but had soared again about 2.4 times this to 8,000 won in late July. Furthermore, the degradability of pesticides increases in higher temperatures, so it is possible that larger amounts of pesticides will be used. As a result, global warming has led to changes in crop yields. According to the report titled Protecting Health from Climate Change published by the WHO in 2008, due to the unstable rainfall and rising temperatures caused by climate change, crop production in many developing regions will decrease and in some African countries, which have only used rain water for rice farming, the yields will decrease by more than 20% by 2020. Therefore, hunger and nutritional imbalances will become worse, causing serious health problems. Moreover, the spread of malaria and a food-borne diarrheal disease is expected to increase. The report from the WHO suggests that the impact of climate change is serious. In addition, climate change affects the environment of the processing of agri-food, in terms of transportation, storage, and in changes of the soil quality and land use. This is related to aspects of crop production, soil mineral loss, changes in soil microbial ecology, and so on. Furthermore, climate change is widely seen as the major factor influencing the IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 177
generation of fungal toxin. Fungal toxin is a toxic chemical substance that usually starts being produced before harvest. As the fungus thrives, toxin production increases after the grain harvest. Consequently, the factors influencing the growth of fungal toxin are the weather and the soil, and climate change will undoubtedly result in a change in the production of these systems. Fungal toxins are produced from a variety of fungi and are closely related to temperature, humidity, and precipitation. 5.2.1. Apple Because of global warming, apple plantations have moved north. The main production areas of apples have gradually moved from Gyeongbuk and Gyeongnam provinces in the 1970s to Gyeongbuk province, and if warming continues the area is expected to move farther north or highland. Hyeongho Seo et al. (2004) predicted the change in the areas for the proper cultivation areas Fuji apples caused by changes in temperature, as seen in the shifting colors below (Figure 5-4). Currently, all regions, except the southern and some coastal areas, inland plains, and the neighborhood of big cities, correspond to the proper climate for apple plantations. When the average temperature of the growing season rises by 1, the plantation areas move north. Currently, the plantation area is gradually being reduced, while northern mountainous areas have gradually turned into new proper areas for apple plantations. When the average temperature of the growing season rises by 2, as can be seen on the map, most of Korea will not be suitable for apple cultivation. 178 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture A common year Temperature rise by 2 [Figure 5-4] Alteration of apple farmland by climate change. 5.2.2. Medicinal crops According to predictions developed by the Rural Development Administration in order to proactively respond to climate change, the cultivation of major medicinal crops, such as ginseng, dong quai, and cnidium, will be reduced by climate change (Figure 5-5). By 2090, it is expected that the cultivation of dong quai in Korea will be reduced to less than 1%, making domestic cultivation impossible. Also, the cultivation of cnidium and ginseng will be reduced to the level of 1%~5%, making Korea dependent on imports. If temperatures rise due to climate change, it may have significant effects on the yields, the quality, and the variation of cultivation because these three medicinal crops (ginseng, cnidium, and dong quai) are vulnerable to high temperatures. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 179
[Figure 5-5] Prediction of ginseng cultivated land by climate change. 5.2.3. Grain rice As the temperature increases, possible cultivation areas for rice, a tropical crop, will be expanded, but there is no guarantee that the yield of rice will increase (Figure 5-6). Due to the rise in temperature, the heading date of rice will be moved forward. For this reason, the ripening stage will correspond to the summer, meaning that the temperature at this stage will be higher than in the past. This can lead to a shorter ripening period, resulting in decreased quality and yield because the rice plants had not sufficiently ripened. In addition, if the temperature rises above the acceptable level, sterility may increase. It is expected that when the temperature rises 2, production will be decreased by 4%, and when the temperature rises 5, production will be decreased by 15%. According to Sin Jincheol et al. (2000), if the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and temperatures rise at the same time, yields will decrease in the southern provinces, maintain the status quo in the central region, and increase in the mid-mountainous area. 180 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture [Figure 5-6] Rice production and import by climate change. 5.2.4. Vegetables Fruits and vegetables that require high temperatures will have a greater advantage than at present temperatures. When the temperature rises, the proper cultivation area for cryophilic vegetables will need to move. According to the suitable temperature for cultivation, spring vegetables will need to be cultivated earlier than now, and autumn vegetables will need to be cultivated later. In the winter, the temperature rise can lead to a lack of sunshine and, due to the high temperature, fruits and vegetables, such as onions, lettuce, and strawberries, can be induced to floral differentiation, causing problems. As a psychrophilic vegetable, cabbage withstands relatively high temperatures well in the early growth stage, but is vulnerable to high temperature after the heading period. Therefore, when abnormally high temperatures occur, growth is stopped, heading is stunted, and more pests appear (Rural Development Administration, 2002). Daikon is also a crop that is adapted to cool climates and, in the case of its roots, it lacks tolerance to heat and cold. Cabbage and daikon are crops that often suffer diseases when the temperature is high, and there has been an increasing occurrence of just such diseases IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 181
recently due to high temperatures. According to the scenario reports of the Ministry of Environment, it is expected that the cultivation areas of highland cabbage will be greatly reduced nationally by 2020, to as low as 540,000~970,000 hectares, less than half of the 1,320,000 hectares which has been the recent 30-year (1981~2010) average. 5.3. Threatened food safety Meat, egg, fish meat, and instant food products have all been classified as climate change-sensitive product groups, as determined by a measuring of the water activity and change caused by temperature and humidity in the microbes of 7 products among them and taking temperature and storage time as key management factors. Therefore, temperature and time management seemed critical regardless of packaging at the manufacturer, distribution, or the storage stages of food. Humidity is another factor that should be considered in the management of pathogenic microbes. Food poisoning pathogens and microorganisms that are temperature-sensitive and viruses that cause diarrhea diseases are leading food safety problems connected to climate change. As temperatures rise, the occurrence of these pathogens and the contamination level in food increases, and for this reason the occurrence of food poisoning is expected increase. It is also expected that the occurrence levels of food poisoning and other aspects of these diseases will change rapidly with climate change. In particular, in recent years, as awareness of climate change issues has deepened, the efforts to determine and understand scientifically the correlation between climate change and food poisoning incidents. Climate change is known to affect a variety of environmental conditions directly related to the supply of foods, including the route of movement and changes of food poisoning pathogens due to temperature rises and precipitation patterns. Rising temperatures and the frequent occurrence of abnormal weather events in Korea is expected to cause ecological changes affecting the food poisoning bacteria. Impact of climate change on each bacterial food-poisoning pathogen is not yet clear because the correlation between food safety conditions, such as regional climate change, 182 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture and the occurrence of food poisoning is not yet properly understood. Therefore, along with other current models that predict what may occur in Korea as a result of climate change, it is necessary to make predictions about climate change s impact on the occurrence of food-poisoning bacteria. These predictions would use a forecasting model about the occurrence level of bacterial food-poisoning pathogens and would help in preparing control measures to decrease the occurrence of food-poisoning caused by changes of bacterial food-poisoning pathogens brought on by climate changes within our country. Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) has been suggested as the latest food safety management practices for microbiological hazards sensitive to climate change. When ingesting food contaminated by certain pathogenic microorganisms, QMRA is a process that scientifically and quantitatively assesses the possibility, namely the risk, of infection by the pathogen. In other words, through QMRA we can estimate the generation level (hazard level) for specific food poisoning pathogens in particular foods and, based on this, we may also determine the level of safety for a particular food-poisoning pathogen in these foods. For this reason, QMRA is the most important and scientific method in the field of international food safety and has been recognized as the next generation assessment technology in the field of food safety evaluation. Therefore, QMRA, in combination with mathematical models, has currently emerged as a field that can predict and assess contamination levels of various food hazard factors in the most practical and most scientific way and has been recognized as an absolutely necessary assessment skill in the management of various food hazard factors in the fight against climate change. In conclusion, the purpose of QMRA is to effectively control various food hazard factors in the whole food process, from the gathering of raw materials, to the manufacture, distribution, storage, sale, and consumption of foods, by predicting, analyzing, and evaluating the changes of various food hazard factors. This indicates that QMRA is quite applicable to the changes of different food manufacturing environments brought on by climate change. However, with regard to climate change, there has been insufficient accumulation and IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 183
analysis of quantitative data based on scientific evidence and empirical, experimental data. Therefore, we will have to understand what foods are more sensitive and which food-poisoning germs have more importance in the fight to protect foodstuff from climate change. 5.4. Sanitation and climate change Simulation studies in order to secure food safety from climate-change have been used to analyze the influences of food-poisoning bacteria, parasites, viruses, mycotoxin, paralytic shellfish poison, animal medicines, pesticides, heavy metals and marine pathogenic bacteria. Furthermore, biological/chemical rapid detection methods have been studied at the same time. From these results, we have tried to prepare predictive programs that correspond to climate change. Predictive models of food-poisoning bacteria, parasites, viruses, mycotoxin, paralytic shellfish poison, animal medicines, pesticides, heavy metals, and marine pathogenic bacteria have been developed, and safety programs for animal medicines, pesticides, and heavy metals were prepared from meta-analysis that corresponds to climate change. Climate change trends in China, the US, and Japan, major food exporters to Korea, were studied in order to identify changes in the production of food materials, especially grains. The grain productivity of the major food-producing countries is expected to decline. As a result, the use of pesticides and herbicides and GMOs may increase. Moreover, the decline in production of major food exporters to Korea may increase the possibility of importing food from Southeast Asia or South America, whose food safety has yet to be verified. Such a shift would necessitate the improvement of the imported food safety management system. In addition, the introduction of a tracking system for imported foods, including information related to extreme climate changes, and improvement of inspection system for imported foods are required. The introduction of an early warning system that can be effectively connected to the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) of the EU and INFOSAN of the WHO and 184 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture is appropriate for the food environment of Korea is urgently required for the creation of a preventive management system to secure food safety from climate change. Scientifically and systematically managing the new risk factors associated with climate change requires activating the assessment of emerging risks, the creation of national and international experts' networks, and the exchange of risk information. Furthermore, studies on holistic approaches and multidisciplinary approaches between food safety authorities and experts are also essential. 5.5. Enhancement of Agricultural Competitiveness and Climate Change We must ensure the post-harvest management techniques against climate change. Generally, post-harvest management is the term for various measures that are implemented with the purpose of improving quality, reducing losses, and extending the period of sales distribution (shelf life) by keeping freshness and preventing decay along the entire process, from when the harvested agricultural products leave the hands of the producer to when they reach the final consumer. Since the agricultural cultivation environment has become unstable due to recent abnormal weather, the occurrence of diseases and pests has become more frequent and less predictable, resulting in a greater reduction in quantities and possible interferences with the stable supply of food. To prevent this, the agricultural products with a pre-cooling process require an integrated, systematic management by the cold chain system along the whole process of storage, transport, and sales. This is because, in the case of the fruits or vegetables, if agricultural products managed in cold storage conditions after harvesting and treated with pre-cooling measures to maintain freshness are transported and sold at room temperature the commercial value falls. To create such an integrated system, the Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries established and announced in 2011 its Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries Sector Response Plan to Climate Change, 2011~2020, and it has already begun implementing it (Table 5-1). IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 185
<Table 5-1> Impact of climate change on Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries and response plans Objectives Impact evaluation of plant growth due to the increase of temperature, CO 2 concentration, amount of precipitation Develop resistant varieties and seeds which have resistance to disasters (heat waves, torrential rains, typhoons), high temperatures and pests Increasing the support for cultivation in areas where impact of climate change is relatively small Reducing fertilizer use by increasing support for organic fertilizer (11': 2.5 million tons 15:300) and create eco-friendly farming Complex( 11: 34 15: 60) Establishing an early stable supply system of major grain to prepare for climate change Developing cultivation techniques against the impact of global warming (agriculture, forestry and Fisheries, 2012) Contents Establishing the cause of damage to region, cultivars, rearing period, and setting the predictive model development and safety zone damage aspect Developing the new variety -plant rice(disaster tolerance, plant resistance), white radish, cabbage (high temperature resistance), apple (colored at high temperature), pear (low temperature insensitivity type) Supporting greenhouse control system, including modernization with high-yield crops (tomato, paprika, etc.) and transforming the cultivation of crops like pepper which are vulnerable to climate change Wide environment-friendly agricultural complex: iresource circulation complex (over 600 ha) iresource circulation complex (over 600 ha)ex:or organ ito use agricultural by-product to the livestock. Establishing the expansion of crops to be reserved like rice, wheat, soy, corn etc., and supporting foreign agricultural development companies through using financial markets As the warming effect takes place on Jeju Island and in the southern regions, bringing a subtropical climate, introduce new tropical-subtropical crops, such as mangoes, avocadoes, and passion fruit, and develop the technology needed to cultivate Agriculture, an industry subject to the impacts of climate, is more likely to experience both large and small imbalances of supply and demand depending on the unpredictability of climate change. Recently, food shortages are getting worse due to the continued population growth worldwide (the UN expects the 2050 world population to be 9 billion people), climate change, and the transition of food materials to bio-energy raw materials. 186 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture Thus, in each country, the expansion of the seed industry, especially in the research fields of seed improvement, is required to prepare for food security. The seed industry, which is a technology-intensive high value-added industry, will be a source of future growth. The seed improvement industry has progressed from the first-generation technology, whose main purpose is to increase production, to the second-generation technology that emphasizes enhanced functional nutrients, and to the third-generation technology, whose main purpose is to develop crops which have added medicinal properties from natural crops. Across the world, both academia and the private industries are conducting research to retain genetic resources and custody of breeds and they also remain competitive. Large companies, mainly multinational corporations such as Bayer, Monsanto, DuPont, BASF, are focused on developing mass produced varieties of GM (genetically modified) technology of crops such as soybeans, wheat, and corn. In addition, the development of products that are produced in small scale, such as some fruits and vegetables, has only recently come to light, as Japanese companies are participating in the business of seeds and pesticides for these crops. In the future, in terms of the characteristics of the seed development market, low entry barriers should be established in order to increase the number of companies involved in seed improvement research and development in targeted crops. In Figures 5-7 and 5-8, it can be seen that Korea s seed imports (2,970 tons) are about 5 times more than its seed exports (630 tons). In this way, Korea tends to rely on imported seeds. Thus, seed improvement is required not only at the company level, but also at the national level. In addition, because it was late to enter the seed market, entry to the market should be approached carefully by using the geographical advantages of our country. Since ancient times, Korea has used natural medicinal plants as herbal medicine and traditional Korean medicine had led the development of what is known as Oriental medicine. In addition, Korea, despite its narrow landmass, has a variety of biological resources because it has four distinct seasons due to its temperate climate. Based on the points mentioned above, Korea has no choice but to enter the seed improvement market. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 187
[Figure 5-7] The scale of export on national seed industry in 2013 (source: International Seed Federation). [Figure 5-8] The scale of import on national seed industry in 2013 (source: International Seed Federation). 5.6. Reinforcement of Industrial competitiveness and climate change The food industry is influenced by climate change, but at the same time part of the food industry is also affecting climate change. The carbon dioxide which is emitted in food 188 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture processing is the central factor in this. Studies have been done on how to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide caused by food processing through the replacement of certain technology, and such developments are significant to achieving competitiveness in the food industry by developing management technology to create a food safety management system that ensures food safety in the era of climate change. Hydrogen peroxide vapor (HPV), electron beam irradiation (EBI), and intense pulsed light (IPL) sterilization technology have been developed as processes for controlling new risk factors and that replace conventional food processing technology that consumes high amounts of energy. The HPV and EBI treatment are used against food-borne pathogens on fresh vegetables and in packaged food products, respectively. These technologies effectively reduce risk factors during storage and distribution steps. And the IPL treatment is effective against norovirus in ground water, which used as processing water. When producing food emulsifier and trans-free structured lipid in the fat and oil industry, enzymatic bioconversion technology has been developed to replace the chemical reactions of conventional high-energy consumption. Also, studies have been done in order to develop technology to prevent the influx of pests into food, which may cause food accidents or diseases. One such technology uses microencapsulated paper adhesives containing a natural insect-repelling agent (cinnamon oil) that is then incorporated into the paper box and package materials within the process of manufacturing so that it can prevent the influx of pests into the actual food or through cracks in the interior or exterior of the box. Such technology should be continuously studied in order to achieve competitiveness in the food industry in the era of climate change. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 189
<Scientific technology to be developed for solving problems> (1) Educate farmers about crop cultivation techniques (such as change of cultural location) in order to meet the challenges of climate change. (2) Set-up a database for the standardization of QMRA (Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment). (3) Develop green processing technologies which can replace conventional food processing technology that have had the effect of accelerating climate change. 190 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
5. Climate change and the prospects for Korean agriculture References Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA), annual report of the national weather service, (1990-2015) Lee, J. K., Shin, H. S., Effect of climate warming on food safety - Focusing on the FAO report, Safe Food (2009) Rural Development Administration(RDA), moving to North of the main plantation crops, National Institute of Horticultural & Herbal Science, (2015) Yonhap news, Changes agriculture map to north. Tropical climate on the half of Korea peninsula in 2070 (2015) National Typhoon Center, Analysis report on the effect of typhoon on Korean peninsula (2015) Kim, E. J., Yoon, S. J., Kwon, Y. K., Self-development R&D Study on technology commercialization ecosystem, Korea Technology Innovation Society (2014) Kim, S, H., Introduction of the Project Golden Seed, Tthe Policy of Science and Technology (2013) Vegetable seed exports, International Seed Federation (2013) Vegetable seed imports, International Seed Federation (2013) Kim, C. G., Impact of climate change on the agricultural economy, The Policy of Meteorological Technology (2009) Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA), Results in the prediction of plantation changes about major medicinal crops (2016) Korea Rural Economic Institute, Analysis and evaluation of the effects due to the climate change of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2015) Yoon, S. H., Views and measures of climate change and agricultural production, Korean Journal of Agriculture Atmospheric Sciences (2001) Hwang, Y. S., The developmental directions of characteristics after harvesting tropical, subtropical horticulture product and technology for freshness maintenance, Chungnam National University (2015) Kim, C. G., The Strategies of Climate change and agriculture, Korea Rural Economic Institute IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 191
(2010) Kim, C. G., Study on the climate changes and agriculture field Korea Rural Economic Institute (2012) Kim, C. G., Analysis and evaluation of the effects due to the climate change of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Korea Rural Economic Institute (2015) The Enterprise Organization of climate change, Study on food safety management to the climate change, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (2014) Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Study on the analysis of food poisoning occurrence and its management system due to climate change (2009) JS Kim, GH Jeong, HS Shin, JY Jeong, SM Yoon, EJ Kim, Plans to promote food safety management in accordance with international climate change (2008) 192 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
6 Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea Global warming and trade liberalization have led to an increasing sense of instability for Korean agriculture. Under pressure from the World Trade Organization (WTO), Korea opened its rice market in 2015 after 20 years of postponement. In addition, due to free trade agreements (FTA) signed with other agricultural powers in the world, Korea has been finding it difficult to establish a market for its agricultural products. Under these circumstances, the only way for Korean agriculture to survive is to lead the world in actively adopting biotechnology and developing new and original technology. The basis of creative agricultural innovation is to use advanced biotechnology to overcome climate changes, improve productivity, and achieve sustainable and high-income agricultural management. However, there is an increasing negative awareness and rising concern among consumers over the safety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that presents an obstacle for agricultural innovation. Among the OECD countries, Korea has been ranked the lowest in terms of food self-sufficiency and not been able to reconcile the conflict between biotechnology and eco-friendly agriculture in order to find a way to develop its agriculture. Even though Korea is equipped with a highly skilled and educated workforce that has access to advanced technology, both crucial for the research and development (R&D) of biotechnology, it has failed to achieve any technological innovations in the field of agriculture because many people, along with the government, do not realize the food security crisis the country is facing. In particular, the government seems reluctant to deliver information to, and communicate with, the consumers. This makes it difficult for the government to pursue proper food and agricultural policies. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 193
6.1. Current status of GMO cultivation in the world Since the start of cultivation and commercialization of GM crops in 1996, the area of cultivation has been rapidly increasing. In 2014, world GMO cultivation reached 181.5 million ha, adding 6.3 million ha compared to the previous year; this is more than 100 times the 1996 level of 1.7 million ha. (Figure 6-1) A total of 180 million farmers from 28 countries around the world cultivated the new crops in 2014. The reason why GM crop cultivation has been increasing at such a rapid rate throughout the world is that it is able to significantly reduce the amount of labor required in cultivation while acquiring a high yield with less input of agricultural chemicals. According to a recent report published by a science group in Europe, a meta-analysis of 147 research papers shows that, over the past 18 years, by using GM seeds yields have increased by 22% while the use of agricultural pesticides has been reduced by 37%. In addition, the farmers profits have increased by 68%. More significantly, the increase in yield and incomes has turned out to be higher in the developing countries than in the advanced countries (Klumper and Qaim, 2014). Source: Clive James, 2014. [Figure 6-1] Cultivation area of GM crops in the world 194 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
6. Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea Soybean, corn, cotton, and canola are the major crops applying GM seeds. Among them, GM soybeans have the largest area of cultivation, making up 49% of the total GMO cultivation land, followed by 33% for GM corn, 14% for GM cotton, and 5% for GM canola (as of 2013). As for soybeans, the 84.5 million ha of land devoted to the cultivation of GM soybeans accounts for 79% of the total land used to cultivate soybeans throughout the world. This is because the largest exporters of soybeans, including the US, Brazil, and Argentina, are also some of the largest cultivators of GM seeds. GM corn was cultivated across 57.4 million ha, which constitutes 32% of the entire world cultivation land for corn. GM cotton and GM canola take up 70% and 24% of the land devoted to the cultivation each respective crop. As for the US the largest exporter of grains to Korea, the rate of adopting new GM seeds is 94% for soybeans, 93% for corn, and 94% for canola. In the US, cultivators of GM crops are obligated to plant non-gm crops within 10% of the cultivation land to maintain bio-diversity and minimize ecological disruptions. When considering this obligation, farmers in the US are cultivating 100% of the new seeds on their arable land (Park, et al. 2015). The US National Academy of Science (NAS) has recently conducted wide-ranging research into how genetically engineered crops approved for cultivation in the US and used as food for the past 20 years influenced human health and the environment. About 70 researchers reviewed over 900 research papers and reports to publish a comprehensive 380-page report (NAS, 2016). This report, titled, Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects, concluded that GM food in the market is safe to eat without any problems. In particular, it has confirmed the lack of scientific evidence to support the claims made by opponents of GMOs that they negatively influence human health by causing maladies such as cancer, obesity, kidney disease, autism, and allergies. In confirming the safety of GMOs, this report echoes the conclusions made by many other reports from various science groups throughout the world, such as the EU Committee. While the safety of GMOs has been globally affirmed and their usage has been generalized, the issue of GMO safety and labeling remains a serious political issue in Korea. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 195
6.2. Current status of GM crop development in Korea Through the promotion of research on agricultural biotechnology, along with the crop functional genomic research project and the Bio-green 21 project started in 2001, Korea has acquired major genetic engineering technology with a rapid increase in the number of R&D projects to develop new GM traits. The Next-generation Bio-green 21 Project that started in 2011 initiated a chasing-type research in the field of agricultural biotechnology. First generation biotech crops have been successfully developed in Korea in order to reduce the amount of agricultural pesticides used and to prevent damage from harmful insects. In addition, second generation biotech crops, such as golden rice reinforced with vitamin A and colored rice for improving sight and preventing aging, have been successfully developed (Park, et al. 2015). In preparation for climate change, Korea has successfully developed drought-resistant crops. Drought-resisting rice developed by Professor Joogon Kim has been recognized for its superiority. Subsequently, foreign seed companies have concluded contracts agreeing to technology transfers that open up the possibility of making advances in the global seed market. Besides this, there has been active research on erythropoietic-stimulating crops and hepatitis virus-preventing vaccine crops as examples of third generation bioengineering crops. Continuous efforts are underway to assure Korea s future competitiveness in crop biotechnology. As of 2014, it was expected that these effort would result in the development of about 200 new events in 20 different crops in Korea. The Rural Development Administration (RDA) has developed 180 events in 17 crops. However, most of the GM crops developed are designed for research purposes, including the verification of genetic functions, instead of for commercial purposes. 6.2.1. Current status of development for commercial GM crops A total of 58 events in 13 different crops have been developed in preparation for commercialization by GM Crop Development Business Group in RDA as of 2014 (Table 6-1). Major crops include rice, soybeans, cabbage, peppers, potatoes, yams, and flowering 196 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
6. Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea plants. The targeted formation is to preserve productivity, including resistance against worms and harmful insects and tolerance in poor environments. In addition, developments are sought in order to save labor, improve quality, and grant new functions to meet consumers demands. Along with this, the group is making an effort to improve the value of agricultural products, including high added-value biotech crops, to be produced as industrial materials, promote consumption, and develop new bio-industrial materials. These have been newly manufactur ed accor ding to cr iter ia set out for the r eview for commercialization and safety from the beginning stage of development and including the minimization of patents and a review of the possibility of toxicity in adopted genes and chance of triggering allergic reactions. Furthermore, they are being cultivated as appropriate biotech crops to be presented to safety evaluations through a precise step-by-step review. <Table 6-1> Commercial Biotech crops currently developed for domestic usage Targeted formation Tolerance in poor environment Resistance against worms and harmful insects Rice Soy beans Cabbage Targeted crops Pepper Flowering plant* (5 crops) Others** (4 crops) Total (13 crops) 9 1 2 3 3 18 5 3 2 2 6 1 19 Productivity 6 1 1 8 Quality/ functions 4 1 2 4 2 13 Total 24 6 6 2 13 7 58 events * Flowering plants: Chrysanthemum, rose., carnation, lily, orchid ** Others: Potato, tomato, garlic, fodder crop The GM Crop Development Business Group, RDA, has selected four final candidates that fulfilled the criteria of the review of safety among new events developed so far to establish a foundation for commercializing technology of biotech crops and to expand upon the successful cases and implemented safety evaluations. In addition, they are currently IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 197
preparing for a safety review. Four new biotech crops that are in the process of evaluation and safety review include herbicide-resistant grass, cucumber mosaic virus resistant pepper, drought resistant rice, and resveratrol-produced high added-value rice (Lee, et al., 2015). 6.3. Safety evaluation of new biotech crops The safety of new GMO products is evaluated for environmental risk and food safety. The OECD has adopted an agreement that contains risk evaluation criteria, methods, and policies on genetically modified organisms based on scientific grounds in the 'practical group meeting for the harmonization of regulations in bio-engineering.' The bio-safety protocol was adopted in January of 2000 as an attached protocol of the bio-diversity agreement specifying international regulations to prevent harm to the human body and the environment that might occur due to the movement of LMO (Living Modified Organisms) between countries. 6.3.1. Evaluation of environmental risk of new biotech crops The public is concerned that bio-engineered crops disturb the environment or natural ecology by destroying bio-diversity and causing the creation of super weeds and insects with tolerance early in the phase. Furthermore, there is a fear that they help create weeds from biotech crops, and that there may be a transferring of genes adopted in new products to the wild variety and other species, including soil microbes. In order to settle the controversy on environmental risk and acquire safety, new GM crop developers voluntarily inspect the safety of their crops, and governments acquire objective safety information to prepare for institutional means and provide regulations. Depending on the types of organisms and the extent of release in the environment applied with the new genes, the influence on the environment turns out to be very different. Therefore, a case-by-case system is applied in the assessment of environmental risk of new biotech products, unlike the evaluation of the environmental risk of chemicals, including agricultural pesticides or medicines. 198 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
6. Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 199
In Korea, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry released in January 2002 The Instructions for the Evaluation and Review of the Environmental Risk of Genetically Modified Agricultural Products which designated the Rural Development Administration as the reviewing organization for the environmental risk of new bio-engineering products. Therefore, this organization has been conducting reviews on the environmental risks of new biotech products, stock feed, and all the foods imported from foreign countries to Korea. New biotech products reviewed for environmental risk include foods, fodder, and processed items that are prohibited by conditions from being cultivated and produced in Korea. Figure 6-2 is a schematic of the procedures of review in Korea. Each case takes about 2 to 3 years for the evaluation period. As of the end of December 2014, 104 cases have been approved in five crops, including soybeans, corn, cotton, canola, and alfalfa (Park et al., 2015). 6.3.2. Evaluation of food safety in new biotech crops In 1993, the OECD established the concept and principle of evaluation for safety of new biotech food crops. The OECD member countries, including the US, the EU, and Japan, have been setting the safety evaluation policy based on substantial equivalence. In July 2003, the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CODEX), under the WHO and the FAO, adopted the Principles for Analysis of Risk on Modern GM Foods and the Guideline for Implementation of Safety Evaluations on Food from Recombinant-DNA Plants in the CODEX meeting preparing for internationally agreed instructions on safety evaluation of food produced from new biotech products. Since 1999, Korea, through the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, has operated its safety evaluation policy on genetically modified foods, following the models of the US, the EU, and Japan. Since 2004, the Food Sanitation Act has made it obligatory to evaluate safety, and new biotech crops are only allowed to be distributed in Korea if they are approved in advance and deemed to be at the same level with existing crops in terms of safety and nutrition. If products not evaluated for safety are mixed within a product, sales of the imported goods are prohibited according to Article 4, Paragraph 5, of the Food Sanitation 200 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
6. Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea Act. The safety evaluation review in Korea follows a scientific and objective evaluation method and also applies the principles and guidelines enacted by CODEX in 2003. The safety evaluation review is implemented according to the scientific approach. In order to acquire expertise, objectivity, and transparency of the review, experts in each field review resources by constituting a 'Review Committee for Safety Evaluation Resources Including Genetically Modified Food. This review committee is comprised of 20 experts in each field (general food, molecular biology, toxicity, allergy, and nutrition). Once the review committee comes to a conclusion on the safety of the new products based on all the submitted data, a review result report is released online to the public prior to deciding whether to ultimately approve the product, ensuring the objectivity, reliability, and transparency of the review process. A schematic of the procedures for the safety evaluation review is in Figure 6-3. The review period is completed within 270 days from the day when the safety evaluation is applied. As of December 31st, 2014, there were 122 genetically modified crops allowed to be consumed after the implementation of a safety review by the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. Among these, there are 20 items of GM soybeans, 64 items of GM corn, 21 items of GM raw cotton, 11 items of GM canola, 4 items of GM potatoes, 1 item of GM sugar cane, and 1 item of GM alfalfa (Park, et al., 2015). IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 201
6.4. Consumers perceptions on biotech crops and GM foods The Korea Bio-Safety Information Center has been conducting investigations regarding the perceptions of GMOs held among citizens after the LMO law became effective in 2008. According to the results of the report, the proportion of those who think that 'GMOs are harmful to humans has decreased from 58.6% (2008) to 49.0% (2009) and 46.7% (2010). However, this proportion increased to 49.9% in 2011. This is not unrelated to how some of the civil groups participate in campaigns insisting on the expansion of labeling of GM foods by declaring the consumer's right to know. The proportion of those who realize the need to reinforce regulations of GMO and expand these indications has remained steady at 202 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
6. Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea 90% (Korea Bio-Safety Information Center, 2012). When purchasing foods, consumers tend to consider the country of origin (42.8%), the expiration date (25.2%), the taste (10.8%), the price (9.4%), and nutrition (8.2%). Origin and expiration date are related to the quality and safety of the food. Therefore, it was confirmed that the safety of food is the highest priority placed by consumers when purchasing products. The study further shows that citizens acquire information about GMOs from the media (82.9%) and civil groups (8.2%). Therefore, the role of the media is very important. As for sources of reliable information, most citizens turn to civil groups (37.6%), scientists and academia (26.9%), the media (26.5%), and government organizations (6.2%). According to the results of a recent study from a consumer union, there has not been much difference in citizens awareness of GMO crops. When asked whether GMO crops were helpful in solving food shortages, only 37.4% of consumers said yes. A similar result was produced in 2011 study by the National Academy of Agricultural Science, where only 46.2% of respondents agreed that GM crops were helpful in solving humanity s food shortages. Subsequent studies showed that this number fell to 39.8% in 2012 and then plunged to 13.9% in 2013. Clearly, the public s opinion on this issue has turned negative. In the 2014 consumer union study, 10.9% of the respondents said that the reason why people were interested in GMOs was because it is an alternative to cope with food shortages. A recent study produced a similar response rate as the 2012 survey (37.4%). Therefore, it is very clear that consumer recognition of the reality of GMOs has not been properly diffused (Lee, et al., 2015). The origin of anxiety and fear about GMOs is anti-gmo organizations such as Greenpeace. They are disguising false rumors as scientific fact and providing them to movement organizations in each region. They are collecting strange stories, many of which have turned out to be proven false by scientific research, and unconfirmed cases of damage to create horrifying documentaries (such as GMO Roulette) and distributing them to the entire world. About 100 Nobel Prize winners have released statements urging the international environmental activist group Greenpeace to stop its false campaign. Dr. Per IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 203
Pinstrup-Anderson, who was the winner of the 2001 World Food Prize and also served as the chair of an international food policy research, has expressed support for an international agreement to penalize the irresponsible behavior of these multinational activist groups. It is time for Korea to discuss how to eradicate these actions that spread fallacies and create fear of GMOs among its citizens. 6.5. Future assignment of agricultural biotechnology in Korea The purpose of agricultural innovation is to use modern biotechnology to overcome climate change, improve the quality and productivity of Korean agricultural products, and achieve sustainable high-profit agricultural management. However, the reality in Korea is that technological innovation cannot be achieved due to the negative views and anxiety held by some of its consumers. China has adopted the development of modern biotechnology a mainstay of its R&D and, hence, it has already acquired international competitiveness. Hereupon, they are preventing the creation of a monopoly market controlled by multinational seed companies and are taking a leading role in agricultural innovation by cultivating self-developed biotech crops. Korea has been equipped with a highly skilled and highly educated workforce in the field of biotechnology R&D, and it has been developing various new biotech plants that can help the agriculture and citizens of Korea for the past 30 years. However, they are currently in a situation where no efforts can be made to commercialize these developments in a reasonable way. This is the result of a lack of will, of both its citizens and the government, to realize the sense of crisis in food security and the difficult situation Korean agriculture faces, as well as a failure on the part of the government and the scientific community to effectively deliver information and communicate with others. If the current situation continues, we will inevitably become an under-developed country in the field of agricultural biotechnology and, furthermore, a country that relies on the seeds of multinational companies. In order to prevent this, the scientific community and the government in Korea must establish the following measures to foster creative agricultural 204 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
6. Utilization and Prospects of Biotechnology in Korea innovation (Lee, et al., 2015). (1) The field of science in Korea must actively deliver correct information to the public and communicate with others about the safety of new biotech crops based on scientific evidences. (2) Negative statements regarding GMOs in science textbooks for elementary, middle, and high school shall be modified with accurate information based on science. (3) The government must reject its passive attitude regarding the usage of agricultural biotechnology and must actively support the commercialization of already-developed new products in bioengineering. (4) The government must focus on acquiring leading position in supporting the R&D of new biotech crops through active investment. (5) Korea must acquire food security through agricultural innovation in the use of agricultural biotechnology, and it is recommended to enact a 'food security law' to determine and manage the goal of food self-sufficiency and to maintain effective food producing system. <Science and technology required to solve issues> (1) Relieve consumers anxieties regarding GMO technology and promote the usage of agricultural biotechnology. (2) Solve food problems through the development of new technology, including genome editing. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 205
Reference Park, S. c., Kim, H. Y. and Lee, C. H., Correctly Know GMO, Sikanyeon Publishing, Seoul (2015) Lee, C. H., Yoo, J. R., Moon, H. P., Park, H. J., Gwak, S. S., Lee, H. G., Park, S. C., Kim, J. G., Lee, S. J., Policy for Agricultural Innovation in Korea from Accepting Biochnology, Hanlim Research Report 101, Korea Academy of Science and Technology (2015). Korea Bio-Safety Information Center, Story of Genetically Modified Soybean (2012) James, C., Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops:: 2014. ISAAA Brief No. 49. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, Ithaca, NY.( 2014) Klumper W. and Qaim M., A Meta-analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops, PLoS ONE 9(11):e111629.doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0111629 National Academy of Sciences, Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. The National Academies Press, Washington DC, USA (2016) OECD, Consensus documents on BIOSAFETY (Environmental safety) (http://www.oecd.org/science/biotrack/) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Montreal, 29 January 2000 206 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
7 Change in Social Structure and Awareness Education 7.1. Introduction Due to the rapidly increasing world population, the issue of food and nutrition security is becoming one of the most pressing problems facing humanity. The United Nations proclaimed Eradicating Extreme Poverty and Hunger as the first objective to be achieved by 2015 in its Millennium Development Goals 2015(MDGs, 2015). No Poverty and Zero Hunger are also listed as the first and second objectives in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the UN General Assembly on September 15, 2015. As of August 2016, the total population of Korea is 50.8 million. Korea's population, however, will soon hit a zenith in a few years and then begin to decrease due to the increasing trends of young people either marrying late or shunning marriage altogether, along with a rapidly declining fertility rate(1.24 as of 2015). It is expected to reach 42.3 million by 2050. The agricultural population is expected to decrease even more rapidly than the total population due to industrialization, urbanization, and the increasing abandonment of farming. This raises the very imminent and serious problem of an aging rural population. These problems will certainly exacerbate the already very low food self-sufficiency (grain self-sufficiency is only 23%) and threaten to undermine the very foundation of Korean agriculture itself. In this chapter, we will briefly review the effects of this change in social structure on agriculture and will propose some measures to counteract these problems. We will also propose some educational measures to alleviate these problems. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 207
7.2. Present Situation and Problems 7.2.1. World Population The world population, as of 2015, was 7.2 billion and it is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. According to UN reports, the world's food producers will need to produce 70% more food to feed this population. Considering the recent change of diets to one favoring meat, grain production will need to be doubled. <Table 7-1> World Population: past, current, and future projections (unit: billion people) Year 2000 2016 2020 2030 2040 2050 Population 6.1 7.2 7.8 8.6 9.1 9.7 7.2.2. Population of Korea The population of Korea, as of August 2016, is about 50.8 million, but it is estimated to decrease to 42.3 million by 2050. <Table 7-2> Population of Korea and Aging: past, current, and future projections (unit: million people) Year 2000 2014 2020 2030 2040 2050 Population 47.01 50.42 49.33 48.64 46.34 42.34 Aged* 3.34 6.41 7.70 11.81 15.04 16.16 % Aged 7.2 12.7 15.6 24.3 32.5 38.2 * 65 years and older As shown in Table 7-2, the total population will decrease while the aged population will rapidly increase. These trends will cause a shortage in the labor force and will have adverse effects on the future Korean economy in general. 208 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
7. Change in Social Structure and Awareness Education 7.2.3. Decrease in Rural Population and Aging The agricultural population in the rural areas has steadily decreased, declining from 3.06 million in 2010, to 2.85 million by 2013, and to 2.75 million in 2014. By 2017 the rural population is estimated to reach as low as 2.53 million. The agricultural population of Korea makes up just about 5% of the total population, a really remarkable decrease from approximately 60% in the 1960s. This shows how fast Korea has transformed itself from an agricultural to an industrialized country. The number of agricultural households shows the same declining trend: from 1.17 million in 2010, to 1.14 million in 2013, and to 1.12 million in 2014. However, the ratio of aged population in rural areas is already very high and shows a worrisome trend of increasing: from 31.8% in 2010, to 39.3% in 2013, and reaching an estimated45. 6% by 2021. Some people have even predicted the disappearance of some of rural counties in near future. As of 2014, the number of agricultural households, along with the population and the ratio of the aged in agricultural sector, are as follows. Total Population (million) Agricultural household <Table 7-3> Agricultural Population Statistics Agricultural population Average family size Ratio of Agricultural population(%) Ratio of the Aged in rural area(%) 50.42 1,120,776 2,751,792 2.46 5.46 39.0 This table shows that average family size for agricultural households is only 2.46 members. Thus, a typical agricultural household is composed of either just a husband and a wife or a husband, a wife and one child. The ratio of the aged in rural areas is 39.0%, which is more than three times higher than that for the total population (12.7%). 7.2.4. Arable Land The arable area for rice paddies and dry fields is also steadily decreasing due to industrialization and urbanization. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 209
<Table 7-4> Arable Land for Rice and Dry Crops (unit: million ha) Year 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2014 2015 Area 1.876 1.836 1.782 1.715 1.711 1.696 1.679 7.2.5. Multicultural Families As of 2014, there are 14,700 multicultural families in which either the husband or the wife-most frequently a wife-is a foreigner; and of these multicultural families, 66,200 family members are engaged in agriculture in rural areas. The average family size for these families is 4.5, which is almost double that of the typical Korean agricultural household. This means that children in the rural areas are mostly from multicultural families. 7.3. Solutions and Policy Recommendations Considering the size of the Korean agricultural sector, it is quite certain that, with exception of certain special crops, it cannot compete in the global market. However, if we consider food security, agriculture is indispensable to the very existence of our people. Moreover, many people consider the agricultural and rural areas to be the spiritual home of all people on earth. We suggest some solutions and policy recommendations below. 7.3.1. Preventing Abandonment of Farming and Encouraging Return to Farming Those who shun settling in the rural areas and who hesitate to go back to farming commonly cite the inaccessibility of certain services, such as medical facilities, schools for their children, and other resources, as a significant reason for not living in rural areas. - Medical facilities: Hospitals and clinics are highly concentrated in urban areas and qualified medical personnel usually don't want to work in rural areas. Therefore, the government needs to augment the medical staff of, and provide modern equipment to, the rural health clinics that it operates. Also, in consideration of the aging population, it 210 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
7. Change in Social Structure and Awareness Education is essential to establish remote treatment systems, using information and communication technology (ICT), to treat simple, chronic, and/or age-related diseases. - Veterinary Medicine: Veterinarians and animal clinics are also concentrated in urban areas. They are mostly engaged in the more profitable treatment of the so-called companion animals, such as dogs and cats. There must be suitable support and incentives for veterinarians and animal clinics in rural areas that treat big animals, such as cattle, pigs, and fowls, such as chickens and ducks. - Education: Even though it may be costly, the government must maintain good primary and secondary education facilities for the children in rural areas, fishing villages, and remote islands. - Employment: The income gap between rural and urban households should be closed by developing non-agricultural sector job opportunities in rural areas. - Accessibility: Since the social infrastructure, such as paved roads, railroads, and public transportation systems, is well developed and car ownership is quite high, there are no serious problems of accessibility in the rural areas. However, special attention should be paid to the so-called mobility disadvantaged people, such as children, the physically disabled, and the elderly people, living in rural and/or isolated places, such as islands. - Accessibility to Energy: The Goal Seven of the SDGs calls for ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. We have sufficient electric power and an efficient transmission network, so, generally speaking, there are no serious problems in accessing to electrical power. However, in some places, such as very remote and isolated villages and small islands lying outside the transmission network, it is necessary to install power systems using renewable energies, such as wind power and/or solar energy. 7.3.2. Corporate Farming and Mechanization - Corporate Farming: Considering the continuing decrease in arable land and the small average farm size per household, it is necessary to introduce large-scale corporate IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 211
farming that is equipped with state-of-the-art agricultural technology, knowhow, and global marketing skills. This type of farming is especially suitable in the reclaimed lands which remain fallow. However, before this can take place, the various stakeholders must come to terms in order to solve the conflict of interests between corporate farms and small-scale household farms. - Mechanization: As of 2014, only 56% of dry crops farming had been mechanized, while 98% of rice farming had been mechanized. By enhancing the mechanization rate for dry crops, we can overcome the labor shortage caused by the decrease in, and aging of, the rural population. This can also encourage the transition from a heavily rice-centered agriculture to one that is centered on diverse dry crops, which will certainly help increase Korea's grain self-sufficiency. 7.3.3. Awareness Education - General Education: The second goal of the UN MDGs 2015 called for achieving universal primary education and eradicating illiteracy. The effort to achieve these goals has been quite successful. Both the rate of primary school enrollment in the developing regions and the rate of literacy among youths aged 15 to 24 reached 91% in 2015, up from 83 % primary school enrollment in 2000 and 83% literacyin 1990. In Korea, primary education has been universal for a long time, so illiteracy has been practically eliminated. However, in order to help rural citizens to carry out everyday tasks, such as filling out official documents, filling out job applications, fully understanding the directions on the labels of agrichemicals, and so on, with minimal difficulty, universal education must be extended to secondary education. - Multicultural Households: As of 2016, there are 150,000 foreign-born mothers and 220,000 children belonging to multicultural households. Special attention and proper measures are necessary in order to support these mothers and children. Although enrollment rates of these children are quite high, 93% for elementary school and 76% for middle school (Ministry of Education, 2014), there are serious problems in communicating in the Korean language between these mothers and their children. In 212 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology
7. Change in Social Structure and Awareness Education addition to the special care and attention need to be given to the children of multicultural households, the same amount of care and attention should be given to their mothers as well. Foreign-born mothers should also be able to receive education in Korean language and culture that is at least equivalent to the elementary school level, and they would preferably have access to supplementary education at the secondary school level. - Education on Food, Nutrition, and Agriculture <On food and nutrition> From infancy, parents should instill the right eating habits to their children and restrain from eating instant foods and drinking high caloric, carbonated beverages. From the kindergarten years, children should be taught the preciousness of food and to restrain from overeating. Elementary and primary schools should teach the importance of a balanced diet and nutrition and their effects on one s health. In addition, schools should teach the resources spent to prepare food, from planting to the dinner table, including such aspects as labor, water, energy, fertilizers, agrichemicals, etc. The mass media, such as newspapers and television broadcasting, should show restraint in including contents which show disrespect to food, encourage excessive consumption, or endorse scientifically baseless subjective claims. <On food waste> Schools should provide waste prevention education covering the whole food cycle, including planting, growing, harvesting, transporting, storing, processing, and finally consuming. Efforts should be made in order to change people s attitudes toward what is considered commercially non-desirable foodstuffs, such as foods of a different size or appearance, foods with minor defects, etc. Companies should reconsider the marking of the sell by (date) on processed foods which can be stored and consumed without any harmful effects to health. IAP Food and Nutrition Security and Agriculture Korean perspective 213
Waste prevention should be encouraged through the practices of purchasing the appropriate amount of food and properly planning menus. <On agriculture> On-site or on-line education in farming, animal breeding, and aquaculture should be provided on new varieties of crops, new breeds, new technology and knowhow, etc.. A life-long agricultural technology education system which is low-cost, effective, and easily applicable should be established. Farmers should be provided with basic maintenance and preventive maintenance skills for farm machinery. Farmers should be encouraged to save energy and water, use the proper amount of fertilizers and agrichemicals, and conserve soil quality. Waste materials, such as vinyl films, agrichemical containers, and disabled machinery, should be collected and disposed of properly. In the case of outbreaks, there should be strict quarantines of breeding farms, in order to prevent catastrophic disasters, such as foot-and-mouth disease and avian flu, awareness of animal hygiene should be promoted. Farmers should be urged to use the appropriate minimal use of pharmaceuticals, such as growth promoting agents and antibiotics. Finance, accounting, and insurance coverage education should be provided to small-scale farmers and aquaculture operators. Education providing marketing know-how, including direct selling/purchasing through the internet, own brand registration, controlling delivery timing, etc., should be made available. 214 The Korean Academy of Science and Technology