Chapter 9 Semantics: 의미론 홍성심 : 인문대학영어영문학과
What is Semantics? 언어의의미에대한지식혹은직관을연구하는학문분야 목표 : 모국어화자가가지고있는의미에관한무의식적인지식을명시적으로설명함 Meaning: Word meaning Sentence meaning (including Phrasal meaning) 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 2
Examples: John saw her duck. (more than 1 meaning) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (?) a. This is a blue jacket. a. entails b. b. This is blue. Have you stopped smoking? (presupposition) a. This car has two doors which open only from the outside. (This car may have 4 doors) b. This car has two doors, which open only from the outside. (This car is a 2-door car.) 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 3
Lexical semantics: 어휘의미론 Lexicon: 음운적정보, 통사적정보및의미적정보 Semantic property: 단어의기본적인속성 bachelor: [unmarried], [male] Showing meaning relations within a sentence: kill 이 cause to die 라는것을어떻게도출하는가? a. *!John killed the fly, but it didn t die. b. *!John killed the fly, but he was not the cause of the fly s death. c. *!John caused the fly to die, but it didn t die. d.*!john caused the fly to die, but he was not the cause of the fly s death. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 4
Showing differences between words: Kill causes one, not necessarily a person, to die Murder intentionally causes a person to die Assassinate--- intentionally causes a socially prominent figure to die Semantic Argumentation: a case study Q: kill= cause to die? John killed the fly = John caused the fly to die. John killed the fly yesterday. John caused the fly (yesterday) to die (today) Therefore, kill =/= cause to die 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 5
Componential analysis: 단어의의미는의미적복합체로서, 기본적의미를가진몇개의성분으로이루어짐 Semantic features: 의미속성을 + 와 로나타내는방법, 의미자질의수는아주많을수있지만간소화시켜표시함 ( 잉여규칙 ); 의미자질은단어의관련성과차이점을포착하는유용한장치임 bachelor [+male, -female, -married, +human, +animate ] boil, fry, steam, broil, sauté, stir-fry 끓이다, 튀기다, 찌다, 굽다, 직화, 삶다, 중탕하다, 볶다 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 6
의미적일탈 (Anomaly) 과은유 (Metaphor) Anomaly: 문법적인문장이지만의미적으로이상한문장 This idea sleeps. The theory is purple. Contradiction: 동시에참일수없는말을동시에참이라고하는경우 John i is here and he i is not here. John i has a brother and he i is the only son. Cf. My brother John is the only son. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 7
의미일탈과의미자질 (semantic features) 의미일탈은자질사이에모순관계가빚어지기때문 This idea sleeps. this idea: [-animate]; sleeps: requires its Sbj to be [+animate] The theory is purple. the theory: [-matter]; purple: requires its Sbj to be [+matter] or [+concrete] 문학작품은 의도적으로 의미일탈을시도하여작품성이나상징성등을높인다. 이를수사학적언어 ( 수사기법, figurative language) 이라고한다. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 8
(1) 은유 (Metaphor) 은유 : 의도적으로자질억제를허용하는표현을함으로써화맥 (context) 이나대화자가가진세상적인지식의영향을받음 언어의유연성 (flexibility) 특징을표현 The tree wept in the wind. [-animate] vs. [+animate] 그나무는바람속에서울었다. My car is a lemon. [-fruit] vs. [+fruit] 내차는골치덩어리야 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 9
Shower: John showered his fiancee with gifts. Giving is like dropping from above. Cloud: The police are concerned that G20 may be clouded over by radical protests. Protests are an intrusion of light. Fog: My memory is a little foggy. Rain: Into each life some rain must fall. Hardship is a precipitate (from above). Hail: A hail of bullets. (Cold, hard and driven). Wind: The winds of change. ( 변화의바람 ); 변화 = 바람 Sunshine: You are the sunshine of my life. Happiness is light (see "cloud"). Sunset: He'd entered his sunset years. ( 인생의황혼기에접어들다 ) Clear skies: It's gonna' be clear skies from now on. ( 주식시장이점차밝아집니다 ) Lightening rod: The president became a lightening rod for criticism. Blow: You'll be blown away! Our position is susceptible to sudden change. Gust: Criticism began to gust in from all sides. ( 사나운비판을면하기어렵다..) Thaw: Relations between the two countries began to thaw. ( 남북관계는꽁꽁얼어붙어있다가최근해빙무드를타고있다 ) Thunder: My boss thundered into the office, as soon as I started talking to my friend over the phone. Anger is hostile weather. Breeze: This course is a breeze; it is an easy task to accomplish. Dawn: The dawn of civilization. ( 문명의개화기 ) Cold: It was a cold reception; no one seemed to mingle with others. Warm & Tepid: It was a warm reception, but the keynote speech was tepid. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 10
Dry spell: The US economy has been suffering a long dry spell. Revenue is the welcome rain of business. Chilly: It's been a little chilly around the office since Mr. Stuckkup became boss! An office has an emotional climate, which may be invaded by a cold front. ( 이사무실분위기매우썰렁하네 ) Blizzard: There was a blizzard of activity at the emergency room and ICU of the hospital. (Seemingly erratic movement). Whirlwind: It was a whirlwind romance that spun out of control. Romance may be phenomenal and brief. ( 바람처럼스쳐간로멘스 ) Drift: He was a drifter, of origin unknown. A lack of will is a lack of destination. Misty: Misty, water-coloured memories... Memories are neither solid nor distinct. Season: It is the season of change. ( 변화의계절 ) Winter: She entered a spiritual winter. ( 그녀는잠수를타고있다 ) Autumn: The old couple had entered their autumn years, and yet their finance is still shaky. (= sunset ) Twilight: The man entered his twilight years a broken man. (see "sunset") Darken: The skies of her future began to darken, as soon as she filed for a divorce. ( 그녀가이혼을신청하면서그녀의장래는어두워지기시작했다 ) Weather: His face was weathered by a long, troubled life. Bad events wear the youth from our face. I had known him in many weathers ( 난그남자의산전수전다알고있다 ) Storm: She was unsure if her proposal could weather (=survive) the storm of scrutiny. Scrutiny is harsh weather to one's ideas. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 11
Bake: It was a half-baked idea; no details on how to implement were unknon. Boil: My colleague was boiling mad, when he realized that he was demoted. Pickle: That's a real pickle of a problem. Some problems cannot be resolved, as if preserved indefinitely. Recipe: A recipe for disaster is carelessness and a recipe for a happy marriage includes love, trust, and money. Raw: 허각 has a raw talent for music. Talent is only potential, and must be developed (cooked). Simmer: The crowd began to simmer down. Heat is activity, and activity is heat. Spicy: She showed up in a spicy new outfit at my party. Stir: The news must have stirred up all kinds of emotions in him. Our emotions settle into levels in our minds, the top level is the most visible. Tasty: Tasty tidbits of information. The mind has a palate that prefers certain thoughts and information, and in small, easily digested servings. Taste: Your wife has great taste in furniture! 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 12
Food: Food for thought. The mind is hungry, and eats ideas. (anything that provides mental stimulus to thinking, 생각할거리, 마음의양식 ) Dish: She is my dish. Plate: My plate is already too full. A plate is a flat, limited space for solid thoughts. Serve: Served up a number of suggestions. Suggestions are food for thought. Appetite: Mary has an enormous appetite for learning. Digest: Let us take a moment to digest the information. Processing data involves breaking down, changing and sorting it. Swallow: Chomsky s theory is hard to swallow. Data that is unfit for the mind needs extra effort. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 13
동음이의어 (Homonym) 같은발음, 다른의미 bear, rock, fast, kind, like, policy, fine etc. see/sea, flower/flour, our/hour etc. 다의성 (Polysemy): 하나의단어가여러개의의미를가지며여러의미들이의미자질을공통으로소유하는경우 glass ( 유리, 유리컵, 안경 (pl.)--- [+ 유리 ]) Q: Is bank homonym or polysemy? Nope! Historically, bank1 and bank2 were spelt differently. It was a sheer accident that they became homophonous. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 14
Ambiguity ( 중의성 ) 하나의표현이두가지이상의의미 / 해석 Lexical ambiguity: She met a guerilla is lexically ambiguous because the word guerilla is lexically ambiguous with gorilla The area around the mouth is rather uninteresting (mouth of a person, the mouth of a river, the mouth of a cave, the mouth of a bottle, etc) Structural ambiguity: 구조적차이에따라두가지이상으로해석되는경우 Old men and women John saw her duck. I like John better than Mary. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 15
모호성 : 의미가분명히명시되지않는경우 John went to school. (by which mean?) Vagueness ( 모호성 ) John killed an ant. (with intention or without intention?) 중의성문장과모호성문장의구별 : 중의성문장은일치된해석만을허용하며모호성문장은엇갈린해석을허용한다. (do so test) 모호성 : John went to school and Mary did so, too. 앞절의문장이모호하며뒷절의경우도엇갈린모호한문장해석이허용된다 (John 은 ( 버스타고 ) 학교에갔고, Mary 도그랬다 ( 걸어서갔다 도포함됨 ) 중의성 : John saw her duck and Bill did so too. 앞절의문장의해석과뒷절의해석이완전히동일해야한다 John 은그녀의오리를보았고, Bill 도그랬다. ( 그녀의오리를본경우만포함됨 ) 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 16
VP deletion wrt vagueness vs.ambiguity The student pointed at the mouth, and the teacher did, too. (ambiguous sentence) The student pointed at the mouth (of the river) and the teacher did (=point at the mouth of the river/*of the man) too. John contacted her.(vague sentence) John contacted her ( by phone, email, post, telepathy are all possible) John contacted Bill, and Caroline did, too. John contacted Bill (by phone), and Caroline did (contact Bill by email) too. 중의적문장은 VP- 생략된부분이앞문장과완전동일해야하지만, 애매한문장은 VP- 생략된부분이앞문장과다른해석을가져도문법적이다. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 17
(1) homonym ( 동음이의어 ) (2) antonym ( 반의어 ) (i) complementary antonym; life-death, married-single, (ii) gradable antonym; happy-sad, dangerous-safe, (iii) relational antonym; employee-employer, teacher-student, buy-sell (3) synonym ( 동의어, 유사어 ) -nym words: (4) hyponym ( 하위어 ) <-> hypernym ( 상위어, superordinate) house, chalet, cottage, high-rise are hyponyms of building black-eyed Susan, baby s breath, camellia, poinsettia are hyponyms of. Colt, donkey, stallion are hyponyms of. red is a of `scarlet', `vermilion', and `crimson. `scarlet', `vermilion', and `crimson are of red, and also color. But color is a hypernym(=superordinate) of red, green, brown, crimson, maroon, and black 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 18
동의어 (Synonym) 와동의문 (Paraphrase) 동의어 : 같은혹은거의비슷한의미를가지고있는단어들 ; 완벽한동의어는없음 daddy, dad, father ( 사용환경에따라다름 ) postman-mailman ( 영, 미영어의지역적차이 ) Beef-cow 동의문 : 뜻이비슷한문장 : ( 예 : 능동과수동 ) The police arrested the criminal. The criminal was arrested by the police. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 19
반의어 (antonym) 반의어란? 단어가가지는많은의미자질중에서두개의단어가공통적으로가지는자질과다른자질이있을때반의어를찾을수있다. 산토끼의반댓말은? What is the antonym of the word king? 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 20
반의어 (Antonym) 의종류 : 3 가지 반의어 : 의미가반대인단어들이며단하나의의미속성을제외하고다른모든의미자질을공유함 상보적반의어 (complementary pairs): alive-dead, married-single, present-absent, exit-enter, raiselower, push-pull, day-night, right-wrong, saddismmasochism, sink- float, for-against, true-false, question-answer, accidental-intentional, departarrive, former-latter, vacant occupied, pass-fail, inward-outward,, push pull extinguish- ( ), inhale - ( ), promote ( ), etc. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 21
등급반의어 (gradable antonym): dark-light, tall-short, hot-cold, best-worst, easy-difficult, hardsoft, wide-narrow, abundant scarce, knowledge-ignorance, dangerous-safe, wet-dry, old young Fat-thin, old-young, thick- Hot Warm Lukewarm. Cool.Cold Hot Warm..( ).. Cold. freezing (weather) Often-rarely, most-least, rich - poor dark-light/bright, 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 22
animal is the hypernym (superordinate) of all the words below. All the words below animal are hyponyms of animal 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 23
관계적반의어 (Relational antonym/converses): under/over, teacher/pupil, wife/husband 관계적반의어는일종의상보적반의어지만, X 와 Y 가동시에존재해야한다는점에서상보적반의어와다름. 즉반의어의쌍인 X 와 Y 는공존하는관계에서그반의성이생겨남. Servant master, toward-away, child-parent, borrowlend, employee-employer, teach learn, teacherstudent, husband-wife, above-below, grandparentsgrandchildren 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 24
지시 (reference) 와의의 (sense) 단어의의미는 그단어가지칭 / 지시 (reference) 하는대상 (referent) 이다 입장 : What is the meaning an avocado? (guacamole?) Meaning of a car 만일지칭 / 지시하는대상이없는단어는의미가없는것인가? Unicorn, dragon, friendship, hippogriff(horse+eagle), griffin (a winged monster with an eagle-like head and the body of a lion) 은의미가없는단어인가? 아니다. 만일지칭 / 지시하는대상이동일한 2 표현은의미가같은것인가? 아니다 a morning star vs evening star Venus ( 금성 ) Superman 과 Mr. Clark 은동일한인물을지시하는데이두표현의의미는같은가? 아니다 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 25
의미는의의 (sense) 이다? 의의 (sense): 한개체에대해서떠오르는생각, 생각하는방식이나, 혹은한개체를제시해주는방식이며지시하는대상이없는단어의의미를설명할수있음 ; 지시에대한보완적인작용을함 Happiness 의의미는? Griffin (eagle-like winged monster on the body of a lion, a legendary animal in the fairly tales) Unicorn 의의미는? Superman 의의미는? 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 26
의미역 (thematic role) Thematic role: 술어가표현하는장면에서필요로하는역할이며주요하게전치사구나명사구로표현됨 Agent, patient, theme, instrument, source, goal, location etc. John loves Mary. John is in Florida. 의미역의위계 : 비중이높은역할을맡은표현이좀더높은자리에나타난다. Agent>Instrument>Theme (UTAH) John opened the door with the key. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 27
Thematic role assignment, argument, adjunct 주어와목적어의미역은동사로부터배당되고전치사구가가지는의미역은전치사에의해명시적으로표시된다. 주어와목적어와같이문장에반드시나타나야하는표현을논항이라한다. 전치사구 with the key 와같이반드시나올필요가없는표현을부가어라한다. John opened the door (with the key). 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 28
Theta criterion ( 의미역기준 ) 각논항은의미역을가지고있어야하되단하나만가지고있어야하고, 동사가갖고있는각의미역은배당되어야하되단하나의논항에배당되어야한다. John gave * (that book) to Mary. John gave that book to Mary (*Bill) 영항술어 (zero-place) predicate: 주어자리는허사 it It is raining. 술어의유형 : 논항의개수에따라 1 항술어, 2 항술어, 3 항술어로구분. (4 항술어 : bet) 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 29
Typical thematic roles ( 교재 338 쪽 ) (1) Agent : 동작주, 행위역, -The puppy chewed up the shoe. / Marty played chess. (2) Patient: 수동역 -The sun melted the ice./mary cooked the bacon with the white wine (3) Theme: 대상역 -The horse is in the stable/josh passed the ball to Jeff. (4) Experiencer: 경험역 -Mary felt annoyed/ The referee observed the game/ The deer heard the hunter in the woods./snakes scare all the hikers (5) Beneficiary: 수혜역 -Mary gave Leo the book/ We bake a cake for Lorian (6)Instrument: 도구역 -My wife flipped the pancakes with a spatula/miss Scarlet killed the man with a lead pipe. -This key wouldn t open the door easily. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 30
Thematic roles(continued ) (7) Locative: 처소역, 처소격, 위치격 -John ate at the restaurant. / We met each other at Harvard. (8) Goal: 목표역 -John gave the book to Leo / Madam Secretary gave a speech to the club (9) Source: 근원역 -The water bubbled from the spring./ They came all the way from New Orleans. 기타중립역 (neutral) 혹은주제역 (topic) He is from Africa. This computer weighs 10 kilos. 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 31
9 장의주요개념 Key concepts: 단어의의미와의미자질 (semantic features) 성분분석 (componential analysis) Semantic anomaly와 figurative language Homonym & polysemy Ambiguity & vagueness Synonyms Antonyms complementary, gradable, relational Reference & sense Meaning of relative clauses Entailment & presupposition Thematic roles (semantic roles) 2013/1/11 Prof. Sungshim Hong 32