[이슈] 광장의 재조명, 재고찰 광장은 드디어 광장 이 되었다! 광장에 대한 시지각적 해석과 공간적 사유 도시 광장의 미기후와 온열쾌적성 한국인과 광장 광장(廣場)은 열린 공간이다. 사람들의 마음을 열고 생각을 나눌 수 있는 공간이다. 광 장은 세계 여러 나라에서 역사

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2 CONTENTS :,! (, ) 4 ( ) 7 ( ) 15 ( )

3 [이슈] 광장의 재조명, 재고찰 광장은 드디어 광장 이 되었다! 광장에 대한 시지각적 해석과 공간적 사유 도시 광장의 미기후와 온열쾌적성 한국인과 광장 광장(廣場)은 열린 공간이다. 사람들의 마음을 열고 생각을 나눌 수 있는 공간이다. 광 장은 세계 여러 나라에서 역사의 거대한 물줄기를 바꾼 공간이며, 이는 우리에게도 예 외가 아니다. 광장이라는 물리적 공간은 어떻게 시작되고 변화해 왔는가? 광장을 광장 답게 만드는 동력은 무엇일까? 우리나라의 광장은 어떤 모습일까? 기후변화 하에서 광 장 디자인은 어떻게 바뀌어야 할까? 이번 호 e-환경논총에서는 광장의 변천 과정과 앞 으로의 개선 방향에 대해 도시계획 전문가, 교통 전문가, 공학자, 그리고 대학원생의 분 석과 의견을 싣는다. 표지설명: 광화문, 서울시청 광장과 촛불의 궤도(서예례 편집위원)

4 [ ],!! (, ).,,..,,..,,,..,..!.!.,,?..?,,,,,??.. ( ) (1919),, 8.15 (1945), 4.19 (1960), ( ), ( ), 4

5 [ ],! (1980), (1987),...,...,,?., ,,,,,,,.,..,,, ( ).?..? ?,,.!...,,,.,,,,., (spectacle).,, 5

6 [ ],!,,., 4,,,...., , 2017., ,?...?....,,??,?,?,.?,??,,,?!..?. 6

7 [ ], ( ),.,,..,,.,,.,,...,.,,,,,,,.,,, 7

8 [ ],.,.,,,,,, (!),..,.,.,,, (Geoffrey Broadbent, Emerging Concepts in Urban Space Design, p. 219)..,, (Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, pp.57-58)., DNA.. (Thigmotaxis),,., (Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, p.25)., 8 1.,, ( ) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ) ( ) : Paul Bell et al.,, p.206

9 [ ],,., (Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, pp.25-26).,.,,,, (Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, pp.90).,.. 1,,,,. 7m 3m. 25m 100m (Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, pp.90).,. 25m.,.. fmri, FFA( ).,. (Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, pp.57-63).,..,,,.. 100m 100m, 9

10 [ ], 100mX60m.,. 35m,,. 25m (Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, pp.87-89)., 35m 25m., (,, p.42~43).., (2006), 35 ( : Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, p.89). 2. ( : Ann Sussman et al., Cognitive Architecture, p.90).

11 [ ],,. (Geoffrey Broadbent, Emerging Concepts in Urban Space Design, p.235).,.....,..,,..,.,,, m

12 [ ], D/H (, The Aesthetic Townscape, p.47~54)..,.,.,,,.,,. (inner park) (outer park),,,.,,. (William Whyte, City; Rediscovering the Center, p.128~129).,,,,.,. 20, (,,, p.188) /

13 [ ],,,,,,...,., 4. (William Whyte, City; Rediscovering the Center, pp.156~160).,,,.,,,.,,..,...,. A.D. 3.,.,.,, (William Whyte, City; Rediscovering the Center, p.339~340).,..,,...,.,?,. 13

14 [ ], Ann Sussman and Justin Hollander (2015). Cognitive Architecture, Routledge. Christopher Alexander et al. (1977). A Pattern Language, Oxford University Press. Geoffrey Broadbent (1990). Emerging Concepts in Urban Space Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold. Gordon Cullen (1971). The Concise Townscape, Elsevier. Jane Jacobs (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House. William H. Whyte et al. (1988). City, Rediscovering the Center, Doubleday. Yoshinobu Ashihara (1983). The Aesthetic Townscape, trans. By Lynne Riggs, MIT Press. Paul A. Bell et al. (2003).,,,. (2003).,,,. (1996).,,. 14

15 [ ], ( ) 1..,, ,,,, ,, ,,,., ) Jacobs (1961).

16 [ ],.. (Jane Jacobs) 1961 The Death and Life of Great American Cities. 1 (William Whyte) 1969 Street Life Project ,. 2.,.. (microclimate) (thermal comfort).,,,... (urban climatology), (meteorology), (building science), (wind engineering).,, ,. (Vitruvius Pollio) 15 (De architectura),,.,,. (Forum) ) Whyte (1980). 3) Vitruvius Pollio (2005; M. H. Morgan, Trans.).

17 [ ], 1. (Vitruvius) 4 15 (Leon Batista Alberti), 16 2 (Felipe II) (Laws of the Indies).., , , The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces,,,. 17 4) Vitruvius, De architectura Libri X (

18 [ ], (Santa Fe) (Alamos) 2. (Laws of the Indies) (Whyte) Street Life Project 6 (Jan Gehl) Life between Buildings 2010 Cities for People,. 20 5) Messina, J. Architecture and Urbanism of the South West. ( 6) Whyte, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces.

19 [ ],, ,,.,.. (adaptation), (mitigation), (resilience).,,,.....,.... (computational fluid dynamics), (thermal comfort models). 19 7) Gehl (1987). 7) Gehl (2010).

20 [ ], ( : ; : ) , ) Maragkogiannis et al. (2014). 10) (2012).

21 [ ], , , , , ) (

22 JES 59 [이슈] 광장의 재조명, 재고찰 도시 광장의 미기후와 온열쾌적성 그림 6. 광화문 광장 22 그림 7. 서울 광장의 분수대 언젠가부터 서울을 비롯한 주요 도시의 광장 여러 곳 주는 청량함을 즐기는 사람도 많다. 에 분수대가 설치되기 시작했다. 앞서 언급한 광화문 광 여름이 길어지고 온난화가 진행되면서 우리의 도시 장, 서울 광장, 청계 광장은 물론, 주거지에 위치한 작은 광장에는 이러한 수경 요소가 설치되어야 이용자의 온 어린이 공원과 아파트 단지 내 놀이터에도 크고 작은 분 열쾌적성이 보장되는 시대로 접어든 것이다. 홍콩, 싱가 수대가 하나둘씩 설치되어 유행처럼 번지고 있다. 5월부 포르, 쿠알라룸푸르 등 동남아 열대 및 아열대 지방에 위 터 10월까지 하루 중 기온이 가장 높은 낮부터 오후 늦게 치하는 여러 도시에서 흔히 찾아 볼 수 있는 수경 요소가 까지 가동되어, 어린이는 물론 많은 사람들이 분수대에 우리의 도시 광장에 앞으로 적극적으로 도입될 것임은 서 시원함을 만끽하는 모습을 어렵지 않게 볼 수 있다. 딱 충분히 예측 가능하다. 히 분수에 뛰어들지 않고 주변에 앉아 있기만 해도 물이

23 [ ],...,.,. (2012).. Gehl, J. (1987). Life between Buildings: Using Public Space. Copenhagen, Denmark: The Danish Architecture Press. Gehl, J. (2010). Cities for People. Washington, DC: Island Press. Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York, NY: Random House. Maragkogiannis, K., Kolokotsa, D., Maravelakis, E., & Konstantaras, A. (2014). Combining terrestrial laser scanning and computational fluid dynamics for the study of the urban thermal environment. Sustainable Cities and Society, 13, Vitruvius Pollio. (2005). Ten Books on Architecture (De Architectura). (M. H. Morgan, Trans.). Stilwell, KS: Digireads (original work written around 15 BC). Whyte, W. H. (1980). The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. New York, NY: Project for Public Spaces.. Messina, J. Architecture and Urbanism of the South West. Vitruvius, De architectura Libri X. Whyte, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces.

24 [ ], ( ) , , ,, 3....,,,. 4 1) 2) 3), (2016). -,, 4), (2009).

25 [ ],.,.. 5?,? ,,,. 6 ( 1) ( 2),, ( ).,,,..,,,., ) (2005). : 6) 49 50

26 [ ], ( ). < , , > 1. 3., 4. 5., 11.,.,,,,,.? 2-2.,,. 1971, ,...?, (events) ) (1998) ), (2011). -

27 [ ], 3.,, (2013) 3, - -, (2016),,.,, (2009) (2014) (Camillo Sitte), (Enclosure) 27 (Rob Krier),, (O.F.Bollnov). (Franco Mancuso),,,,,,,,,,,,,

28 [ ], 3... (Shields 1990; 1999, ). 9,.,..,. ( ). < 4>. 4., (2009),, (2013),, (2011), (2008) (2009), (2011), (2016), (2015), (2003), (2009), (2009), (2014) (2010),, (2012) 28 4.,.(, 2009) 10,.,.,, 9), (2016). -,, 10), (2016).

29 [ ],..,.,, :, , ,. 600,,,..,. - ( )...,,., ) (2008). 6

30 [ ],, 1949,, , : 1894 ( 31) ( ),..,., 53 ( ), ( ).,,.. 12.,,.,.,.,.,.,,. - ( : La Commune de Paris, ~ 5 28 ) 5.,. 3 3,,,,,,. 70.., 10, 30

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33 [ ], J.S. 16.,. 6.,.,,,,..,,,,..,.,,..,.,...,....,.,.. 13.,,.,,,., 33 13) (1996).

34 [ ],,,. 14,. 2002,,,.,.,.,, 16,.., ), (2009).

35 ,, -,, 33,,,, 6.,,,.,, ,,,,. ( ).

36 1 : ( ), ( ), ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 36 :,.,..., , (1927).., ,

37 ... : ( )...,.., DNA , / :, ( ),?. 10~15%......, ,. (Exclusion), (Defense), (Closedness). Jaque Attali ( ),,..,, , ( ). ( ) ( ),.... ( ),,.,

38 (Alceste)., ,. 7, , ( ) ( ).., ( ). ( )., (1885~1889) ( ). ( ), ( ),, (Globality). ( ),, ( ), ( ) ( ).,,. ( ). ( ),,.,. :. < >., ,,. Be British( ). 1,700,.... Be Korean.,. (Bridging State) : (Bridging State)..,.. (social redesign),. (Global Situation), (Bridging Attraction). (network), (reciprocity), (coexistence). : (33 ) 38

39 ., ,.,,.,.,, ,.,?..,.,.,.,,. : (33 ),,,,... Dear American citizens,.,.. (Tocqueville) (Democracy in America),,..., (general interest), (particular interest) : (33 ) 39

40 ....,... ( ). ( )....,.,..,.. 40 : (33 )..,. 80%, 70%,..

41 2, ( ) ( ) ( ) 41?, (ubiquitous).! (Fordism),.... (Steve Jobs)....,,,,.. 1+1=2 (H 2 O).,.....

42 (mall) (lifestyle playstore)..... ( ).. ( (Blue Jays) ).. ( ).. (win-win). (Unique)!,.,. 2000, (7 )..,.... (locality) (universality).. (locality) (universal) ,,. Coop s Shot Tower,,. (Santiago Calatrava Valls)..,! (iphone) ,. 42

43 ... : - -, - -, - - (Golden Triangle)..,. (1933).,.... an ordinary bridge with an extraordinary history.,. an ordinary bridge with an ordinary park. Work high, Play high.. (co-working space), (co-playing space),...? ,.,.. (Camden Town)..? ( ).,.. : 40...,,,. 1,000.,,, 43

44 LG..,... :,.. (option value).. : (33 )..., (locality).. : (33 ). (33 ) (virtual space) (augmented reality).. : (33 )..,. ( ). 44

45 ( ) ( ) ( ) 45 :,, %, 83.7%. 83.7%.. G20 ( / )..,. ( / ) 85%, 50%, 5 70%. 91%. 17%. 4%..., : %.. ( ), ( ), ( ). ( ).,, (needs).. (Lewis Mumford).,,,,

46 ...,,... (Valérie Gelézeau)....,. D 5~ ~ , 10m... 4.,, ( ) 7.. 2, ~5, 15~50. 50~150, 3,000~4,000. 4~8m.,,., m.,,,. (gated community)..,,,,,,.,. 2, 4~6.,.. 4., :.. < (Transformation de Paris)>., (barricade). 3., 46

47 7. 7,,..,,., 7.,.., (facade) , :,, (share house) (Le Corbusier) < (La Ville radieuse, 1942)> (Archigram) < (Walking City, 1964)>., 4, (smart city).. < (1990)>, < (2002)>, < (2005)> (PAPI Dream Home). 2005, PAPI Pal( ) Pizzazz( ). 10,...,,,,,,.,. A/S. 3.,. IT.,. 7.,,., :

48 (Sustainability), 1997 (Ecology), 2010 G20 (Green Growth), 2015 (Energy Zero) BAU 37%. 50%, 25%, 25%... BRE (Innovation Park) 12. (The Prince s foundation). 3.,, , :. (1), (n/n), 1/n.,.,. (Jeremy Rifkin) 3 (2011)......,. 7..,,, %, 1 35%... ( ) ( )... :,,.. ( ), ( ). ( )...,, 48

49 ..., 7 ( ). 19.,,, Weissenhofsiedlung < >,. 4..., KTX..,,, :.,.,....,.. : < >.... :,,.. (33 ).. (33 ) (33 ).,. 49

50 : (33 ). PMK (33 )..,.. 50

51 4 : URBAN DESIGN (SMART GREEN CITY : IMPROVING OUR LIVES BY REDESIGNING URBAN ENVIRONMENTS IN AN ERA OF CLIMATE CHANGE) (, ) ( ) ( ) 51 (Ken Livingston) 2% 80%.,,., , (Environmental Performance Index: EPI) (air quality) , : Courtyard.

52 Don Mosteller(2016) , , 4, CO (IEA) OECD 1 CO t t 7.2% t 11.39t 110.8% Climate Action Tracker, (Smart Green City) (energy), (smart grid).,,.,,,.,, (lifestyle), (climate positive) (building) (, ) 30%. 2 (community), (clustering), 20%. 3,, Smart Green City

53 20% %. 5,000.,,,,,. (Green way),,,., Smart Green City 4. Greenways Housing Smart Green City Residential Prototype..

54 ,,,.,,, 11.1%, 10.9%, 14%.,. CO2,.,. E.S.S.(Energy Storage System),,.., / 90%, 40%.,,.,,.,,.,,., ICT,,. CO2, Smart Green City, Greenways System, (Global Green Leadership), ICT, /, / (Design Principles)

55 .. (Integrative Design). Public Design Center( ). Public Design Center,,,. Public Design Center,. Batter Park City (Private Not-for-Profit Corporations) (affordable housing),,. 10, 10 (Design Principles). ( ) CO2,.,.,,. CO2,,.,. CO2,..., -.,. CO2.. 30% 15 BRT. 2, ,..,. 20~30%. 15~20%.,. : (33 ) 173, CO2 55

56 , CO CO2, 2~30%, 70~80%. CO2,,, 80%.,,. CO (zero carbon), 10,. (33 ) : (33 ).. / /,.,,,,.. CO2,. 20%, 230%., (life style). (33 ),,,. (33 ), CO2.,. PMK (33 )..,. (33 ) (Park & Drive), 56

57 (Smart Eco Center),, (car sharing). 57

58 ( ) ( ) ( ) 58 :.,, 4,,, 1,, (Demographic Bonus)., 2016 (Demographic Onus). OECD,. 2015, 49.5%, ,. 20~39 /65 1, ~39 (16.9%) 65 (8.3%) 2, ~39 (13.4%) 65 (13.1%) 1:1..,, 2, 3,470 2,239 (65%) %, %.

59 , 30 30% , % 20.,,. (deep learning) (artificial intelligence). 4 (The Fourth Industrial Revolution).,,.. (Hyperloop) 1.. : 2015, (20.1%), (8.9%) ~ , km ,.., ( ). ( ). Tips : (shrinkage city).,,.,,.,.. (Smll can be beautiful)., (Small and old is beautiful)., (Rust Belt), 50.. (Youngs town) (smart decline),,.,,,..,..,, 59

60 ,, (Land Care Program).. Clean and Green sites...,,. $ /ft 2. Community Landscape Program. Clean and Green 18 3,000. Community LandCare Organizations $25.00 per parcel/visit... - (Re-Imaging), (Garden Boys).,.. (Interim Uses, Zwischennutzung).. Friedrichshain Raw Temple., (bar)... Neighborhood Transformation Initiative(NTI), Project 5000, 5 in 5., 5 in ,000, 15% 5%.. (Urban Garden Zone).,. :.,.,,..,,.,, 60

61 ...,. (Orhan Pamuk) : 2006.,.,..,. (sharing) 1 (share house),,,. (container housing).. (Stay) (Vacation), (Staycation). /,,. :.. 1/3.,,,. (Luddite)...,. 9:1 5:95. 5%,,,,.?., 3D,....,. 7, 5.,..,... : 61

62 (33 ) 1,300 1,800,,.. (leader),.,. : (33 ). 10. ( ), ( ). 62

63 6 (MEGA PROJECTS AND GOVERNANCE) ( ) ( ) ( ) 63 : 2000,,. 31 GDP 10% ,000. (Korail),,. / (PF). 96, (,, ),,.. (, 29.9%) ( -, 70.1%),,, 30,,. (AMC).,. ( AMC),.,... (equity investors)

64 . 2~30.. :... AMC. AMC...,...,,.,.. 25~30% % , PF(Project Financing) A, B, C 3 40%, 40%, 20%. A B. B 100, A B C.. ( )... (share). (John Nash) (Nash Equilibrium),. 600%. (restructure)., 800%, 1000%.. :., A 50 (5%), B 250 (25%). A , (50 ) (51 7 )., B (250 ) (47 7 ).,. PF(Project Finance, ). PF. PF, (Corporate Finance) 64

65 . PF. PF. PF, CF..,.,,. (equity investors). :, (counter parner)..., ( ).. ( ). STS....., %, 20% (affordable house).,.,., (physical and social assets).,.. (RFP),,,.,. (Battery Park City).. DLMA(Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association). 1966, 1969, 1979, BPCA (Battery Park City Association), BPCA O&Y(Olmpia&York) ( ) World Financial Center.,, (DLMA), (BCPA), (O&Y).,.., DMC. O&Y 70 65

66 80. (dockland) LDDC(London Docklands Development Corporation) 1987 O&Y CW(Canary Wharf). CW 5. O&Y O&Y CW (Enterprise Zone) ~ %..,. :,,. 3 (Non-Profit Developer). CDC(Community Development Corporation). (NPD). LIHTC(Low-Income Housing Tax Credit) Tax Credit. CDC Tax Credit... ( ) ,.... SH LH (Semi-Public). CDC.. :,,.,... 66

67 ,. DMC. KBS MBC....,, LH SH ( ),.. (Bride Loan). (PF),... : (33 ),,.,,,..,. (residential), (office), (retail), (industrial),,.,.. : (33 ),. (Deal Negotiation) 67

68 ,,.,.,,. (33 ).,. : PMK (33 ),.,...,,. 68

69 ( ) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ) 69 : SH.. 100,,.. SH, LH...,,,, SH, , , ,,, A( 46%), B( 40%), C( 13%). 2011

70 ( 47 ), ( 2~3 ).,.,,. 4..,,.. :,.. PF (Project Financing), PF, PF..,. URA JTC( ). One North, JTC (EDB, Economic Development Board),. JTC.. SH, LH. SH.,. SH.... SH.. SH. SH..,. SH.., (REITs).,

71 50. SH.. 1, SH REITs, REITs, REITs. ( ) (114 ) 80%, SH 20%. ( ), (LH),. : SH.,,,.,,.. SH (, ) ,,.... D E 11.,, SH... 85%. 4, ~25%.,. SH,,,.,,. SH, 71

72 . SH. R&D, SETEC. SH,. SH :..,. SH ~400m (, ) SH (,, ). SH,,. 10 (10, 30 ) - (10, 300 ) - 10 (10, 3,000 ). 10 3, ( ).. SH., 1. SH. : SH.. SH......,..,., ( ).. :, SH. 72

73 . (BRA, Boston Redevelopment Authority or BPDA, Boston Planning and Development Agency) (land developer).., BRA,,... SH.,.,.. SH.,..,. (Social Mix). SH. SH (Joint Venture).,,. SH,. LIHTC(Low Income Housing Tax Credit). Tax Credit. (Syndicated loan).. (Boston Capital).. SH, 10..?,?.. CDC(Community Development Corporation)... CDC. : 73

74 .,..,.,,,.,,,,..,. KTX KTX.,.,,, ?,,,,. BRA, URA(Urban Redevelopment Authority), BPDA(Battery Park Development Authority)., BRA,,. BRA,. LH, SH,,,.. PF(Project Financing). TIF(Tax Increment Financing), BID(Business Improvement Districts). (Korea Risk)., 4%.. 50:50 TIF.? 7 5.,,,..,....,.,.. SH,,,. ( )... 74

75 . ( ).,,. : (33 )....,,.,.,., TIF BID.,. :?.,., 1%. 40,. SH,. SH., 1,.., 1%., (deal negotiation),. 75

76 , %,.., SH 255% 230%. 130 (HUG) 30,.,. SH 1,200, 1 3,300, 6,000.,. : (33 ) SH,.. SH.. SH..,. SH 76

77 8 : ( ) ( ) 77 :, 20.. (governance). (new governance).,. - - (market)..,, (co-steering).,,., /.,., (,

78 ),, ( ),,. :.,,,, ,,, 4. 50%, 100%..,..., (Central Park Conservancy). 8. 6,500 75% ,, m 2 3,500. 5,400, 21, , 50, , , ,... : 10 4.,, 3..,. 78

79 4 8, ,, ,475.. : 27.. ( ), ( ),, ( ). - ( ) - ( ).,..,,,,.,., (,, ) ,,., :...,...,..,,..,. : < ( ) 79

80 >,,,. 14.,,,. : 1.,...,,., ,.,,, 4.. :.,...,... 2, 3. ( ) 3 3..,... :,.. (33 ). (33 ).,., 80

81 .,., 200,..,. (33 ), NPO, NGO,,.,.. : (33 ),,, (33 ), - -,,. 13,. -.. (33 ), (town management) (area magement) SPC.,.,.,... /,.,. 81

82 ( ) ( ) ( ) 82, :?. GDP ,600. GDP GDP GDP GDP 11, GDP 12, GDP 9. -, , GDP 4.4, (,, ) GDP 8.8 GDP GDP 3.9 GDP ,,.,, 1~3% (1592 ) 50, ,

83 . 10,. 1, GDP... GDP..., GDP... GDP.,,,.,,,, :. GDP,. (1995, 2005 ), GDP..,.,.? ,. ( -200, -19 ) ( -200, -250 ), ( -19, -60 ) , 5 ROE(Return On Equity, ) 30%. 83

84 . :.. (2012, ), SOC. 32% %, %... (2014 ) r% r% 2.,..,,,,,,......,.. ( ) 1000 ( ), 1/4.. 3/4. 1/ ( ), 1000 ( ), 2/4. 3/4.. :...,, R&D..,,..., , ( )

85 295 (=2.95 ) , , ,?..,,,.,,,. 4,,.,,,.,.,,,. 4 : ,,,. Model X..,,.. (VR, Virtual Reality) (AR, Augmented Reality). 4..,,,,.. (Magic Leap) (MR, Mixed Reality). 4 : (33 ).,,,,.,.. (33 ).,,,. PMK (33 ), 85

86 ,. (33 ). IT R&D. : (33 ),,.,. 10,,,.,,,,. 86

87 10 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 87 :,,. Weiss/Manfredi Architects , ,,.,, (The Trust for Public Land),, ,.,,,,,. 3.,,...,,.,,,.

88 ,.. (hard scape) (soft scape).,,.,,..,,. (Richard Serra), (Mark Dion)...,..,, (Teresita Fernandez) (fabric). (guard-rail) :,?,.,, (The Trust for Public Land).,, (National Endowment for the Art) Weiss/Manfredi Architects,,,.,,.,,.,,, (Grass-roots),,,, (Olmsted) 88

89 . Volunteer Park, Seward Park Gas Works Park, Freeway Park. (Seattle Parks and Recreation), - -, - - -, / -., Park Legacy Plan... MS,,, (boeing),,,, (Career City Index), 1.,, (Quality of Life) 25 1? 1~3,,. (,, ), (,,,,, (, (Grassroots),, ).... (activism)..,.,,. (University of Washington) (tech company) R&D. LGBT( (lesbian), (gay), (bisexual), (transgender) ) (John Howkins) (Creative Economy) (Richard Florida) (The Rise of Creative Class). LGBT., LGBT. (Richard E. Caves) (Creative Industry),,. (Creative Cities Network) ( &,,,,, ).., 89

90 .. (Social Capital),,, (Human Capital),,. (Creative Capital),,.,,,.,,.. :,,.,,. ( ).. (Edward Glaeser) (Triumph of the City). (Terry Nichols Clark) The City As An Entertainment Machine.,,,.,,?. (Global City).. 5 (index), (business activity), (human capital), (information exchange), (cultural experience), (political engagement). 5.,?,,.,.,,,,,.. : (33 ),,. (33 ),.. 90

91 ,,.,,. : (33 ), %.,,,. 10%,., 2. : PMK (33 ),. (Trust for Public Land) key person.,,,..,. 91

92 11 URBAN WATERFRONTS AN APPROACH TO LANDSCAPE INFRASTRUCTURE ( ) ( ) ( ) 92 Urban Waterfronts : Landscape Infrastructure., Resiliency, Ecology, Sustainability,. : (Hudson River Park) 8.5acre Hudson River Park Trust, Michael Van Valkenburg , Room for the water.,,. (Chelsea Cove),.. Resilient Space,..,. Pier structure.

93 bulkhead... urban civic urban civic. : (Ningbo) Ecocorridor 250acre Brownfield Ningbo Planning Bureau East New Town Development Committee SWA Group., Sponge City.,,,. Eco Corridor...,. 5 2.,,. 1, 2., aeration cylinder.,,,., (wind turbine).,. : 500km, 3 5 km 2. 21, 11.,, ,.,.,,... 93

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118 Embedded Duality in the Implementation of Strategic Environmental Assessment in China Ma Sa(, ) SEA means using the EIA and its relative principles and methods in the strategic (polices, plans and programmes) level. Some authors are endeavoring to focus on the practices and framework of SEA in the developing countries and it is easy to identify that the gap between the developed countries and the developing countries is broader in terms of SEA implementation. The duality of western and eastern China is very same with the gap in developing and developed countries. The gaps of eastern and western regions in social and economic development lead to the different government policies and policy implementation cause the SEA outcomes are different. Even though the duality of eastern and western China in economic and social development that caused by dual national strategies and historical and geological reasons is widely discussed, the duality in environmental policies and environmental policy implementation, especially the SEA policies, of eastern and western regions results from the social and economic development gaps is never mentioned in the previous researches. This research is focused on the implementation gap of SEA in China to answer why the SEA in the western region failing to be implemented as well as in its eastern counterpart and in which respects the duality influences the SEA implementation in western and eastern China. The in-depth interview and reviewing government policies are selected as two main research methods. Government policies review reflects under the background of duality economic and social development, when making environmental policies and SEA policies, both central government and local governments pays different attention of environmental protection and in-depth interview provides a more complete and detailed picture of the PEIA implementation process that do not have significant causality and provide more relaxed atmosphere in which to collect information. Four case provinces are selected according the economic and social development criteria. The research finds that the eastern region has an obviously better performance in PEIA implementation among the nine aspects discussed in the research. The western provinces face significant disadvantages and strong barriers of PEIA implementation in almost all of the items. Some strong advantages leading to successful PEIA implementation are: give an important value of environmental protection and relative complete local PEIA policies, the financial and human resource and valid public participation. In addition, the PEIA implementation results in the eastern region are influenced more by policy implementation and the implementation results in the western regions are deeply affected by the policies in the western region. Unlike the successful PEIA implementation outcomes in the eastern region depending either on sufficient policies supporting or good implementation performance, the problems of the PEIA implementation outcomes in the western region are firstly based on less valid and sufficient policies. 118

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122 Impacts and Vulnerability Assessment of Landslides to Climate Change in Various Scales (, ) Republic of Korea has increasingly experienced extreme weather events such as typhoons or heavy rainfall because of climate change. Extreme weather events result in damage in different forms, among which damage caused by landslide occurs every year. Landslide not only damages property but also causes human loss and calls for imperative adaptive measures to prevent or reduce damage. Currently, studies that seek to identify landslide-prone regions and high-priority areas that need adaptive measures are becoming important field. Impact of climate change is found on a variety of scales and in many regions, and yet, adaptive measures have been taken in different forms at the levels of nation, province, and county. Data and evaluation of the impact of climate change can differ to the scales of study target. Thus, proper method also differ to scale when assessing the impact of climate change. The purpose of this study is, in this sense, to develop and apply a methodology for different scales central government, province, and counties to evaluate the impact of and vulnerability to climate change on the occurrence of landslides. The research developed a methodology and framework for finding vulnerable and hazard areas considering different scales and available data. At the national level, the study evaluated many items including landslide and found key vulnerable regions. At the provincial level, the study analyzed areas prone to landslide in Gangwon-do Province from the present to the future and found out specific regions that need adaptive measures. At the county level, Inje-gun of Gangwon-do Province was assessed by 10 models to investigate high-risk areas with uncertainties of models. This study seeks to propose a method that can support decision-makers in establishing adaptation measures against climate change, by developing and applying a viable methodology and framework that can tailor to each user s objective and available data for evaluating the impact of climate change. The results would be help for establishing adaptive measures to reduce damage from landslide and evaluating the impact of and vulnerability to climate change by governments of different scales. 122

123 A Historical Critique on Photo-fake Digital Representation in Landscape Architectural Drawing (, ) This dissertation explores historical landscape architectural visualization techniques and ways of using computer technology and then offers a critique of the pervasive trend towards realism in the recent digital landscape representation. Specifically, it examines historical representational techniques in landscape design from manual drawings to recent computerized visuals; it also explores the role of computer technology in landscape representation during media transition from hand to computer and critically analyses the trends of realistic pictorial depiction in recent digital landscape visualization. Firstly, examining the history of manual drawings, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics and functions of landscape representation and historical changes regarding specific techniques. Landscape architectural drawing has double functions, namely, illustration of not-yet-actualized landscapes (i.e. instrumentality) and generation of creative ideas (i.e. imagination), which are relative, interchangeable, and transformable. These characteristics have been embodied in the forms of particular types of drawing, projections, perspective views, and diagrams, whose characteristics are not so much clearly distinguishable as rather mutually complementary and hybridized in such a way that pictorial views of plants frequently are hybridized to projection drawings. Of course, particular drawing types or techniques have often emerged as suitable and thereby dominant forms, depending on particular historical styles of landscape design. Sixteenth-century Italian Renaissance gardens and seventeenth-century French formal gardens were generally visualized in the form of projections. Eighteenthcentury and early nineteenth-century English landscape gardens were frequently represented in pictorial perspective view. In nineteenth-century America, the professional identity of landscape architecture started to be established and different drawing types were specialized depending on their respective functions. Furthermore, the map overlay method for site analysis emerged. Twentieth-century American modernists began to explore the diagram to deploy design strategies. However, such drawing types and methods have coexisted after their emergence; instrumentality and imagination have been frequently hybridized for the visualization of future landscapes. Secondly, this work discusses the early history of the initial uses of major computer software to shed light on the major roles of such technologies in landscape visualization in the period of transition from conventional drawing tools. Computer technologies generally functioned as mechanical tools to imitate previous manual techniques and translate physical media into computer files. In the 1970s to 1980s, the medium of the map overlay analysis of Ian McHarg, namely, layer cake, changed from manual to computerized. In the transition of technologies, the computerized Geographic Information System served as a mechanical tool substituting the hand in that the GIS efficiently used methods similar to manual procedures, including inventory, evaluation, and visualization. Since the 1980s, Kathryn Gustafson and George Hargreaves have used physical modelling, such as sand and clay models, for landform study. In realizing such models on site, the CAD software generally functioned to translate three-dimensional (3D) models to two-dimensional (2D) construction documents, i.e. projection drawings. In the next two decades, landscape architects, including Yves Brunier, Adriaan Gueze, and James Corner, deployed the collage and montage using mixed media and photographic materials. Since the late-1990s, manual techniques have been increasingly produced using graphic editing software, such as Adobe Photoshop, which 123

124 generally functioned as a tool to perform processes similar to those of manual techniques. In Lifescape, the winning proposal in the Fresh Kills Park competition in 2001, as an exception, Corner fully exploited the potential of graphic software to explore creative visualization techniques, including plan collage, which was used to develop the design idea in the design process. techniques, both to generate creative idea and exploit the potential of digital technology, need to continue to be simultaneously explored in landscape theory and practice. Thirdly, this research offers a critique of the dominant trend towards realism in recent digital landscape representations. Since 2000, in landscape design, presentation drawings adopting a realistic depiction have gained increasing importance in communication with the public. Landscape architects, historically, have frequently used pictorial depictions of the appearance of landscapes as a dominant representational technique; advanced graphic editing software, including Photoshop, make it possible to achieve this desire for realism effectively. This trend is epitomized by perspective views using the composite photographic technique. In representations, discernible traces of cutting and assembling are removed, and visual effects are applied to create illusions via various commands and filters in the software. Thus, the complete representations are perceived as if they were a copy of an actual landscape. To refer to such representations, this dissertation coined the term photo-fake, whose several conditions (invisible frame and viewer s position, illusions, landscape as theatre and human figures as spectators, and digital aura) were analysed by scrutinizing the visuals of recent international design competitions. These techniques often imitate previous manual methods, which historically date back to at least the eighteenth-century picturesque aesthetics and seventeenth-century historical landscape paintings. 124 Whereas the photo-fake image can easily capture the public s eye, it is difficult for the static visuals to achieve full embodiment of all of the multisensory characteristics of a landscape. Thus, photo-fake techniques need to be exploited to deploy a designer s specific vision of the not-yet-actualized designed landscape. Furthermore, digital modelling of landscape performance and various hybridized techniques with different drawing types and technologies provide the opportunity to explore various aspects of landscape and stimulate design ideas during the design process. If a designer s vision of a future landscape cannot be immediately realized on the actual site, then such visions inevitably need to be visualized in other forms. Thus, visualization

125 The Origin and Evolution of Botanical Gardens in Korea (, ) There has been no historical study on the origin and development of Korean botanical gardens until now, although there have been criticisms of the viewpoint that acknowledges the Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden, which was established during the Japanese colonial period, as the first botanical garden of Korea. Thus, in an effort to examine the background of the birth of Korean botanical gardens and its significance, this paper studies the botanical gardens that existed before the founding of the Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden. Particular attention is given to the birth of modern science in tracing the root of botanical gardens. The history of botanical gardens is examined, while an analysis of the four periods that saw significant changes in Korea s history of botany is also provided in this paper. The attributes of physic gardens that emerged with the increase in interest in herbal medicine study and hyangyak (, native herbs) between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries at the end of the Goryeo dynasty and the beginning of the Joseon dynasty are studied in chapter 2. At the end of the Goryeo dynasty, finding native herbs and creating yakpo (, kitchen garden for medicinal herbs) became popular with the rise of the hyangyak theory, which was influenced by the Neo-Confucianist view of nature. Hyangyak policy and system was put in place as medical service became essential for government administration at the beginning of the Joseon dynasty. Jong-yakjeon ( ), a medical facility, was part of the system that was established for the collection, production and localization of herbs. Thus, it may be said that the development of the study of medicine and pharmacy, a new understanding of geography, increase in the interest in local herbs, and royal authority contributed to the establishment of a physic garden in Korea around the fifteenth century. Gardening culture which developed with the rise of natural history that prevailed at the end of the Joseon dynasty in the late eighteenth century is analyzed in chapter 3. Gewuzhizhi, the belief that one could acquire knowledge through the study of matters, which was widely discouraged until the latter part of the Joseon dynasty, started to gain recognition as good practice. Such change of perception led to the birth of byeok (, obsession) and to the rise of collectors and naturalists. Aspects of natural history were found in gardening culture and horticulture, as flower collection became widespread and rare flowers and plants gained popularity. Conducting historical research into flowers, observing and naming of flowers also became popular. Thus, it may be said that toward the end of the Joseon dynasty, functions of botanical gardens, such as flower collection and research, were carried out at the gardens owned by aficionados. The concept and development of botanical gardens in the early modern period toward the end of the nineteenth century, in light of the institutionalization of natural history education, are examined in chapter 4. Gaewha thought, which was regarded as part of the effort directed toward national development, contributed to creating the notion that Korea must adopt Western culture to become a civilized country. Natural history education and other forms of Western culture were introduced to Korea, and the concept of botanical gardens found its way into Korean society via a similar route. The definition, characteristics, functional purposes of botanical gardens, as well as the need to establish botanical gardens were widely shared after the intellectuals of the Joseon dynasty visited Western countries during the early modern period. Thus, it may be said that the idea of botanical gardens, in the modern sense, was introduced and discussed at least in the latter part of the nineteenth century. 125

126 The Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden of the Japanese colonial period that was founded in light of the rise of plant taxonomy at the beginning of the twentieth century is studied in chapter 5. The purpose of the Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden was to further scientific research. However, it was not recognized as a prominent research institute in the academic circle at the time. The birth of the Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden can be understood in relation to the development of the discussion about taste (chwimi or shumi) and its relevance to the state of political or cultural enlightenment of Korea and Japan. Consequently, it may be said that the evolution of the Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden is less associated with the development of botany. The Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden, therefore, may be understood as a display and research institute that contributed to the enlightenment of the public by providing taste (chwimi or shumi) in relation to botany. and the birth of the garden itself were not the same. Thus, it may be said that the development process of Korean botanical gardens was discontinuous and sporadic. Research into the origin and development of Korean botanical gardens has led to the following conclusion. First, the idea of botanical gardens had already blossomed before the Japanese colonial period. Although such functions as botany research, education and display were not carried out by Jong-yakjeon, the royal medicinal herb farm s work of collecting herbal plants has been brought to light. Moreover, although such functions as botanical education and display were not present in the features of the gardens owned by aficionados, the gardens collection of a wide variety of plants, including herbal plants, and their characteristic of providing opportunities to explore natural history have been identified. Also, it has been found that the term botanical garden (sikmulwon) appeared in the early modern period before the Japanese colonial period. Furthermore, although it remained as a discussion, the idea of botanical gardens was formed, and claims made in support of establishing a botanical garden before the Japanese colonial period have been identified. Thus, it may be said that the physic gardens, gardens used for exploring flowers, and the discussions on the idea of botanical gardens provide evidence in support of the claim that the concept of botanical gardens blossomed before the Japanese colonial period. Second, botanical gardens did not evolve from one entity. Circumstances that led to the development of Jongyakjeon, gardens owned by aficionados, discussions about botanical gardens in the early modern period, principal agents that led the construction of the Changgyeongwon Botanical Garden, 126

127 : - - Accessing Climate Adaptation Finance in the Pacific Island Countries: A Case Study of the Fiji Islands : ICLEI (CDP) : - - : : RDX Trait Based Approach to Plant Composition in Dumbeongs: importance of Management 127

128 : : 1 :, Cognitive Mapping with Local Residents in Search of Resources for Sustainable Ecotourism: WIth a Focus on Villages Located around Upo wetland protection area : : : : : 4 : : Investigating the concept of Green City Design on the urban form and user experience of the New Songdo City in South Korea 128

129 59 [Vol. 59]