Attitude and Attitude Change

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1 태도와태도변화

2 태도의중요성 태도는사람들의생활에서중요한역할을수행 친구, 학교, 전공, 직업, 여가활동, 배우자, 궁극적인생의목표를정하는데태도가중요 특별히자유로운선택이가능한상황에서다른것들에비교해서특정한하나가선택됐을때는태도가중요한역할

3 태도의개념 (Defining attitudes) 태도는어떤대상에대해지속적으로호의적또는비호의적으로반응하려는학습된경향 태도는일반적으로인지적요소인신념, 감정적요소인정서, 그리고행동의도요소의세가지로구성 Allport: Attitudes are organized through experience. They are mental and nervous predisposition that gives direct and dynamic influence on individual response to all objects and situations. Krech and Crutchfield: Attitudes are the continuous construct of motivational, affective, and cognitive processes regarding certain aspects of an individual s world.

4 태도의구성요소 인지적 (cognitive) 요소 감정적 (affective) 요소 행동적 (behavioral) 요소 The cognitive component of an attitude concerns ideas and beliefs about the object or person in question. The affective component of an attitude involves feelings and emotions about the object or person. The behavioral component consists of tendencies toward action involving the attitude object or person.

5 태도의인지적요소 어떤대상에대한우리의지식, 생각, 믿는바등을의미 경험 의결과로얻어지는지식이며자기신념 사실 ( 事實 ) 그자체가아니라사실위에얹어놓은별개의것을의미하기에맞을수도있고틀릴수도있음 이러한신념의부정확성에관계없이그것은개인이반응하는데근거를제공

6 태도의감정적요소 어떤대상에대한느낌이나정서의정도 이러한감정들은개인의관점에서태도대상의좋고나쁨에대한정도의판단으로표출

7 태도의행동적요소 인간이어떤행동을할때그행동의전초단계로서그행동을하려는마음가짐이있는데이것이태도의행동적요소임. 행동의도 (behavioral intention)

8 세요소간의관계 ( 직무태도의예 ) 인지적태도 : 어렵다. 자율성이없다. 장래성이없다 감정적태도 : 직무불만. 그일이싫다. 행동적태도 : 이직의도. 노력감소의도. 행동 : 결근. 이직. 태만.

9 태도의기능 (D. Katz) 도구적기능 (need satisfaction) 자기방어적기능 (ego defense) 자기표현기능 (value expression) 환경인식기능 (understanding)

10 도구적기능 태도의도구적기능은행위자로하여금바람직한욕구를달성하게함 태도의도구적기능은사람들로하여금즐겁거나보상적인대상을얻게하고불쾌하거나바람직하지않은대상을피하도록함으로써보상을극대화하고불쾌감이나처벌을극소화하려는효용주의적개념을나타냄 어떤일에대한나쁜경험 ---> 그것에대한나쁜태도의형성 ---> 다음부터는가능한그것을피하려고행동함으로써고통을줄임 ( 보상의경우도동일 )

11 자기방어적기능 태도의자기방어적기능은사람들로하여금불안이나위협에서벗어나자아와자기이미지를보호하게해줌 이러한자기방어적기능은 Freud 의정신분석학적접근에서유래하며, 이와관련하여태도는일종의방어기제 (defense mechanism) 로작용

12 자기표현기능 인간은자신의신념과가치관에대해 표현 을함으로써자아의정체성을재확인하게되며이것은인간에게항상포만감을부여함 집단도마찬가지로그들의태도를분명히함으로써그집단을외부집단에대해서자신들의정체성을재확인하고구성원들은이를통해소속감과단합성을강화함으로써만족감을얻음 이처럼태도는스스로자기표현의기능을가짐으로써더욱강화되고그것을보유한사람, 집단에게자기를분명히할기회를제공

13 환경인식기능 태도는사람들이그들의세계를이해하는데도움을줄기준으로작용 즉태도는사람들이조직화되지않고혼란한세계에의미를부여함

14 태도와행동의불일치 태도와행동의불일치요인 합리화행위이론 (The Theory of Reasoned Action)

15 태도와행동불일치사례 백인교수인 Lapiere 는한명의젊은중국인학생과그의부인과함께여행을함 66 개의호텔이나여관과 184 개의식당에들렀으나한곳을제외하고모두가그들을받아들임 한참뒤에동일한영업소들에게편지를보내어그들이중국인손님들을받아들일것인지를물어봄. 128 개의답신들중에서 92% 가받지않겠다고대답함 중국인부부는실제로는거의완전한서비스를받았으나그뒤의편지들에서는거의보편적으로차별대우를받았음

16 태도와행동의불일치요인 태도와행동간의관계를조사한여러연구를살펴보면태도가행동의원인이라고하는이론을뒷받침해주기에충분한증거는희박 태도와행동간의불일치의원인으로는상황의제약, 문화적 역사적제약, 행동과관련된다차원적태도, 태도와행동간의시간의경과, 태도의불완전한측정 ( 측정된태도와진정한태도와의괴리 ), 대상일반에관한태도와구체적대상에관한반응에서의차이, 기억에서태도의접근가능성등이지적됨

17 합리화행위이론 (The Theory of Reasoned Action) 합리화행위이론은행동 (behavior), 행동의도 (behavioral intention), 태도 (attitude), 신념 (belief) 의상호관련성을보여줌 이이론에따르면주어진행동의결과에대한신념은행동에대한태도를결정하며행동에관한중요한타자의기대에관한신념은행동수행과관련한사회적압력의지각을결정. 그리고이러한행동에관한태도와행동수행과관련된사회적압력의지각은행동의도를결정하며, 이러한행동의도는행동을결정

18 The theory of reasoned action ( 합리화행동이론 )

19 합리화행위이론에따르면행동의직접적인결정요인은태도가아니라행동의도임 행동의도는시간에걸쳐서변화될수있기때문에태도의형성과행동의실행사이의간격이커질수록태도와행동의불일치의가능성은커지게됨

20 태도변화이론 인지부조화이론 (Cognitive dissonance theory) 자기 - 지각이론 (Self-Perception theory) 장 ( 場 ) 이론 (Field theory)

Leon Festinger, 1919-1990 Leon Festinger was born in New York City in 1919 and earned his Ph.D at the State University of Iowa.

21 Leon Festinger, Leon Festinger was born in New York City in 1919 and earned his Ph.D at the State University of Iowa. He taught at Stanford University in In 1968 he went to the New School for Social Research in New York City, where he remained until his death in 1990.

22 Biography of Leon Festinger Although Festinger contributed a large number of concepts and theories to the field of social psychology, probably none has had greater impact than the ideas in his 1957 book, Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Festinger viewed people as thinking individuals who need to have balance in their thoughts as well as their actions. This idea of balance is key to his theory of cognitive dissonance. Much research is still being conducted today in social psychology to answer some of the questions that cognitive dissonance has raised.

23 Dissonance theorists reason that individuals who perform attitude-discrepant behaviors with sufficient justification (a large reward) have a ready-made reason for this behavior. They did it for the reward. But individuals who perform attitude-discrepant behaviors for an insufficient justification (a small reward) have no such ready-made reason for the discrepancy. Since it is difficult to deny one s behavior, these individuals typically reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes to be consonant with their behaviors.

24 인지부조화이론 (Cognitive dissonance theory) 인간은원래많은인지들사이에일관성이결여되어있을때이를피하려는본능이있음 이이론에의하면태도란사람들의조직적인심리구조의일부를이루는것인데사람들은이구조를유지하는과정에서부조화를피하고조화 (consonance) 를추구하려함 이러한부조화나조화는사람들마음속의두개이상의태도들이나다른인지적요인들사이에이루어지고있는관계에서일어나는심리현상임 사람들의태도변화는결국부조화를피하고조화를추구하는과정에서일어나는현상임

25 인지부조화이론에따르면예측된부정적결과를야기하는혹은야기할가능성을가진행동을자유로이선택할수있다는것을개인이인지할경우에만인지부조화를경험 이러한인지부조화가촉발되는원인으로는불충분한정당화 (Insufficient justification) 와긍정적인대안들사이에서의선택의압력 (Post-decisional dissonance) 이있음 불충분한정당화와관련한추가적인연구들은인지부조화는행위자가상대방에대한 호감 을가지며동시에상대방이행위자를 믿는 경우에한하여인지부조화가일어남을보여줌

26 자기 - 지각이론 (Self- Perception theory) 자기 - 지각이론은불충분한정당화와관련된결과에있어서인지부조화이론과는해석을달리함 행동에대해서충분한보상을받는개인의경우에는행동에의관여에대한충분한외적인정당화가존재하기에태도를변화시키지않지만, 불충분한정당화를가진개인의경우에는외적인충분한정당화가존재하지않기에그들이관여하는행동그자체를믿기때문에그러한행동을한다는태도를형성한다고봄

27 Daryl Bem, professor of psychology at Cornell University

28 Biography of Daryl Bem Daryl J. Bem, professor of psychology at Cornell University, obtained his BA degree in physics from Reed College in 1960, and began graduate work in physics at MIT. The civil rights movement had just begun, and he became so intrigued with the changing attitudes toward desegregation in the American South that he decided to switch fields and pursue a career as a social psychologist specializing in attitudes and public opinion. He obtained his PhD degree in social psychology from the University of Michigan in 1964, and has since taught at Carnegie- Mellon University, Stanford, Harvard, and Cornell University, where he has been since 1978.

29 Cont. Professor Bem has published on several diverse topics in psychology, including group decision making, selfperception, personality theory, ESP, and sexual orientation. He is coauthor of an introductory textbook in psychology and the author of Beliefs, Attitudes, and Human Affairs (1970). Professor Bem has presented testimony to a subcommittee of the United States Senate on the psychological effects of police interrogation and has served as an expert witness in several court cases involving sex discrimination.

30 자기 - 지각이론의이러한효과는태도에관한내적인단서 (internal cues) 가약할경우에일어남 이러한상황에서개인은그들자신의행동을관찰하고, 이러한관찰된행동에근거해서태도를추론하게됨 태도에관한충분한내적인단서가존재할경우에는외적인불충분한정당화가태도의변화를발생시킨다는자기 - 지각이론의설명력은떨어짐 (Deci 의인지적평가이론 )

31 장 ( 場 ) 이론 (Field theory) 인간의심리상태인태도는고정적이거나안정되어있는것이아니라겉으로는그렇게보일지라도사실은서로상충되는힘이계속작용하고있는동적 ( 動的 ) 인세력장세계에서균형상태를유지하고있음 (K. Lewin) 결국균형상태의세력장에서의태도변화는변화제어세력과변화추진세력과의세력관계에서결정됨

32 태도변화에영향을주는변수들 태도내재적인요인 상황적외부요인

33 태도내재적인요인 새로운태도와의유사성정도 기존태도의일관성정도 다른태도와의조화성정도 기존태도의유용성정도

34 새로운태도와의유사성정도 변해야할태도자체가어떤상태냐에따라서그변화가촉진되기도하고방해되기도함 기존의태도와대체될새로운태도가서로유사한것인지의정도에따라태도변화의정도가달라짐. 즉전혀반대의태도를갖고있거나극단적인태도를가진사람의경우그의태도를변화시키려면무척힘이들게됨

35 기존태도의일관성정도 태도의세요소인인지적, 감정적, 행동적요소간에서로일치할수록그태도는안정적이고고정적일것이며그만큼변화시키기가어려움 동시에이들세요소각각에대한변화의시도가필요한데, 각각의시도들이서로일치되어야태도변화가더욱효과적이라고할수있음

36 다른태도와의조화성정도 한사람이가지고있는태도가그가갖고있는다른태도들과조화를이룰때그태도는변하기어려움

37 상황적외부요인 새로운태도의원천 전달되는메시지의내용과전달방법

38 새로운태도의원천 기존의태도를대치할새로운태도가어디에서출발한것이며그원천이얼마나피설득자로부터신뢰를얻고있는가에따라서변화가좌우될수있음 원천이전문성, 신뢰성, 호감성을가질수록태도의변화가용이함 이러한원천의성질은기본적으로변화담당주체의자질에달려있지만, 그보다도변화대상자가설득자를어떻게지각하고판단하는가가더욱중요함

39 전달되는메시지의내용과전 달방법 메시지의내용 (what) 이태도변화의주요변수이지만, 메시지를어떻게전달하는가의방법 (how) 도중요함 설득해야할핵심메시지를대화의초기에넣어야되는지맨나중에꺼내야되는지그외에도메시지를어는정도간격을두고몇번에걸쳐설득하는것이좋은지등의 메시지의구성 도중요함

40 수용자들이다른대안적견해를알고있는경우에그다른대안을제시하지않는것은수용자들로하여금설득자의신뢰성을의심하게하고결국에는부정적인반응을가져옴 양쪽의입장을다제시하는방법과관련되는이론으로는 McGuire 의接種理論 (inoculation theory) 이있음 이이론에의하면수용자들에게반대의견을취하고있는입장이주장할만한것중의약간을미리이쪽에서말해주면수용자들의반대의견에대한면역이커져서이쪽에서강화하려는태도의확보가더효과적으로강화됨

41 태도변화의기제들 새로운정보제공 공포유발및감소 입장의불일치 의사결정과정참여

42 새로운정보제공 태도를변화시키는가장일반적인방법은개인에게자신들의신념과태도를바꿀만한새로운정보를제공하는것임 신념은태도를일으키기때문에신념구조를바꾸면결과적으로태도가변화될수있음 신념의변화가태도를변화시키려면새로운정보가신뢰성있고정확하다고지각되어야함

43 공포유발및감소 공포유발과태도의변화는일반적으로역 U 자곡선을이룬다고함 Katz 에의하면공포유발보다는감소가태도변화에더적합하다고함 특정태도가개인을내적갈등이나외적인위협으로부터보호해준다면, 태도를바꾸기위한위협의사용은오히려공포만증가시켜서변화에대한저항을일으킬수있음

44 입장의불일치 어떤것에대한개인의기존입장과그를설득시키려는타인의주장간의차이가태도변화를일으킬수있음 그불일치의정도가클수록개인이타인의주장쪽으로변화될가능성이커짐 그러나주제가개인에게매우중요해서관여수준이높다면, 두입장간의극단적불일치보다는중간정도의불일치가태도변화를더욱크게일으킬수있음

45 의사결정과정참여 의사결정과정에개인을관여시키는것은태도변화의한기법임 참여적관리운동의일차적논리는하위직조직구성원들이자신들의직무에영향을미치는과정에관여하는행위를통하여더욱정적인직무태도를갖게된다는것임 Vroom 은의사결정에참여하면얻게될성과에대해서더자아관여될것이고관련된주제및직장에더동일시한다고주장함

46 정교화가능성모형 (The Elaboration Likelihood Model) 정교화가능성모형에따르면태도변화는두가지경로, 즉중심적인경로 (central route) 와주변적인경로 (peripheral route) 를통하여일어남 관련사항에관하여동기화되고 ( 관련사항에관한개인적인관련성 ) 논의를위한사고능력을갖출경우에설득은중심적인경로를통해서일어나게되는데, 여기에서는메시지자체의속성, 논리성이설득의주요한결정요인이됨 반면에동기화나사고능력을보유하지못한개인은메시지자체의성격이나내용과상관없이주변적인경로 ( 설득자의전문성, 신뢰성, 호감성, 유사성등 ) 에의해서영향을받게됨

47 중심적인경로를통하여형성된태도는관련사항에대한세심한고려의결과에기초하고있기때문에변화에더욱저항력을가지게됨 중심적인경로를통하여형성된태도는또한주변적인경로를통하여형성된태도에비해서행동과일관성을가짐

48 정교화가능성모델 (The elaboration likelihood model)

49 설득적의사소통에따른태도변화 (Attitude change induced by persuasive communications) 1. 소통자의유형 (Type of communicator) 2. 소통의유형 (Type of communication) 3. 청중유형 (Type of audience)

50 소통자유형 (Type of communicator) 1. 신뢰성 (Credibility of the communicator) - 전문성과신뢰성을갖춘소통자가효과적 (A credible communicator is one who is both expert and trustworthy.) 2. 매력 (Attractiveness) 3. 유사성 (Similarity)

51 소통유형 (Type of communication) 1. 방해 (Distraction) 2. 결론짓기 (Drawing conclusions) 3. 일방향적 vs. 양방형적 (One-sided versus two-sided arguments) 4. 면역 (Inoculation) 5. 공포 (Fear appeals)

52 청중유형 (Type of audience) 주제에의개입정도 (Involvement in the issue) 소통자와청중간의간격 (Discrepancy from the audience s position) - 많은연구에따르면간격과태도변화간에는역 U 자형관계가존재 (Many researchers have found an inverted U-shaped effect between discrepancy and attitude change. )

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