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1 원저접수번호 :09-029(2 차 -0710) 연세대학교대학원언어병리학협동과정 a, 성균관대학교의과대학삼성서울병원신경과 b 연세대학교의과대학재활의학교실및재활의학연구소 c 윤지혜 a,b 김선우 a 이광호 b 정진상 b 나덕렬 b 서미경 a,b 김향희 a,c Language Profiles of Transcortical Aphasia Ji Hye Yoon, MS a,b, Sun Woo Kim, MS a, Kwang Ho Lee, MD b, Chin Sang Chung, MD b, Duk L. Na, MD b, Mee Kyung Suh, MS a,b, HyangHee Kim, PhD a,c Graduate Program in Speech and Language Pathology, Yonsei University a, Department of Neurology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine b, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine & Research Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine c, Seoul, Korea Background: The term transcortical aphasia is applied to primary lesions not involving the receptive and expressive language areas, but rather the areas connected to the association cortex. By definition, patients with transcortical aphasia can repeat what they have heard, but they have difficulty producing spontaneous speech or understanding speech. This paper reports the clinical features of stroke patients with transcortical aphasia to delineate the language profiles of its subtypes. Methods: Eighty patients with stroke were divided into three subtypes of transcortical aphasia: transcortical sensory aphasia, transcortical motor aphasia, and mixed transcortical aphasia. A Korean version of the Western Aphasia Battery was used to compare the subdomains of language ability among the three groups. Results: The patients showed a relatively preserved repetition ability, but the performances in repetition and generative naming, and the aphasia quotient were highest in the transcortical sensory aphasic group, followed by the transcortical motor aphasic and mixed transcortical aphasic groups. Conclusions: The present study provides detailed information on the language profiles of the three subtypes of transcortical aphasia, which can be differentiated based on the aphasia quotient and generative naming scores. J Korean Neurol Assoc 28(3): , 2010 Key Words: Transcortical sensory, Transcortical motor, Mixed transcortical, Aphasia, Language profiles 서론 피질경유 ( 연결피질 ; transcortical) 라는개념은피질내의특정한기능을담당하는중추 (center) 를서로연결한다는뜻을지닌다. 전통적으로브로카영역 (Broca s area) 과베르니케영역 (Wernicke s area) 은각각언어표현과언어이해를담당하 Received December 28, 2009 Revised April 19, 2010 Accepted April 19, 2010 *HyangHee Kim, PhD Department of Rehabilitation Medicine & Research Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 250 Seongsanno, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul , Korea Tel: Fax: h.kim@yonsei.ac.kr 는언어중추로알려져있으며, 이두뇌영역이서로긴밀하게연결되어야만스스로말하기 (spontaneous speech) 가정상적으로가능하다 년에리히타임 (Lichtheim) 은베르니케 -리히타임모델 (Wernicke-Lichtheim model) (Fig. 1) 1 을통해의미-개념표상인 F와베르니케영역인 B를연결하는통로인 E, 또는 F와브로카영역인 D를연결하는통로인 G가손상되면언어이해또는표현은저하되는반면, 따라말하기능력은상대적으로보존되는실어증이발생한다고주장하였다. 이실어증을피질경유실어증 (transcortical aphasia) 이라명명하였으며, 후에언어특성에따라피질경유운동 (transcortical motor), 피질경유감각 (transcortical sensory), 혼합피질경유 (mixed transcortical) 실어증의세아형으로세분하였다. 166 대한신경과학회지제 28 권제 3 호, 2010
2 지금까지보고된피질경유실어증에대한연구는대부분환자의병변또는병태생리학적요인을확인하는것에그초점이맞춰져있었다. 또한한국어를구사하는환자를대상으로발표된 9편의피질경유실어증연구들 2-10 뿐만아니라최근의연구들 도병변을중심으로이들의개괄적인언어능력만을기술하였다. 이처럼피질경유실어증의병변과대략적인언어특성은알려져있으나, 실제임상에서사용하고있는언어검사의수행력과진단과정에서의변별기준등에대한연구는찾아볼수없다. 본연구는피질경유실어증으로진단된 80명의한국인환자들을대상으로언어평가를통해나타난언어능력을자세히살펴보고, 그임상적유용성을확인하고자한다. Figure 1. Wernicke-Lichtheim s schema. In this model, interruption of pathway E or degradation of F (the semantic-conceptual field) would produce transcortical sensory aphasia with fluent speech, impaired comprehension, but normal repetition. Interruption of pathway G would induce transcortical motor aphasia with a loss of spontaneous speech, but with intact repetition and comprehension. * Reprinted from Journal of Clinical Neurology, 2006, 2, , KM Heilman. Aphasia and the Diagram Markers Revisited: an Update of Information Processing Models, with permission from the Korean Neurological Association. 피질경유실어증의아형에따른언어특성과병변 (lesion) 을살펴보면다음과같다. 첫째, 피질경유운동실어증은비유창하나상대적으로청각적이해력과따라말하기능력이보존된다. 이실어증은주로전대뇌동맥 (anterior cerebral artery, ACA) 혹은전대뇌동맥과중대뇌동맥 (middle cerebral artery, MCA) 사이의폐색 (occlusion) 이나협착 (stenosis) 으로인해브로카영역의앞이나위쪽을포함하는부분에손상이있는경우에발생한다. 둘째, 피질경유감각실어증의경우는청각적이해력은저하되지만상대적으로유창한발화와더불어따라말하기능력이좋다. 중대뇌동맥과후대뇌동맥 (posterior cerebral artery, PCA) 의사이, 혹은후대뇌동맥영역의폐색이나협착으로인해베르니케영역주위에병변이생기는경우에이실어증이관찰된다. 마지막으로, 혼합피질경유실어증은완전실어증 (global aphasia) 처럼발화의유창성과언어이해력은심각하게저하되지만따라말하기능력은상대적으로보존된특징을보인다. 이실어증은주변실비우스주위영역 (perisylvian region) 인브로카영역, 베르니케영역, 그리고이두언어중추를연결하는영역을제외한광범위한대뇌피질의다발적인손상에기인한다. 대상과방법 1. 대상 본연구는뇌경색이나뇌출혈로인하여신경과에입원하거나외래로방문한환자들중에서언어장애가의심되어신경언어검사를시행받은환자를대상으로하였다. 이전에뇌졸중병력이있는환자, 퇴행성질환이있는환자, 발병이전에언어장애와관련된과거력이있는환자, 그리고심한주의력 (attention) 문제및의지상실증 (abulia) 이의심되는환자는대상에서제외하였다. 또한오른손잡이의약 99% 는좌반구에언어중추가위치하는것 14 으로알려져있으므로, 결과의일반화및임상적적용을위해서오른손잡이환자만을대상으로하였다. 최종적으로총 80명 ( 남자 51명, 여자 29명 ) 의피질경유실어증환자자료를수집하였다. 선행연구 15 에따르면, 성별에따라언어능력에는차이가없으므로본연구에서도결과분석시남녀를구분하지않았다. 환자의평균연령은 61.86±12.82 세 ( 범위 : 28~85 세 ), 교육년수는 11.00±4.54 년 ( 범위 : 0~18 년 ), 발병경과후언어검사시기는 60.16± 일 ( 범위 : 0~750 일 ) 이었다. 2. 언어검사언어검사는한국판웨스턴실어증검사를사용하였다. 이검사에서피질경유실어증의하위유형분류는유창성, 청각적이해력, 따라말하기, 이름대기의획득점수를기준으로한 Kertesz 의분류표 (Table 1) 16 에근거하여구분한다. 이기준에따라전체 80명의피질경유실어증환자를분류한결과, 피질경유감각실어증은 53명 (66.25%), 피질경유운동실어증은 13명 (16.25%), 혼합피질경유실어증은 14명 (17.5%) 이었다. 세집단간평균연령, 교육년수, 발병경과후언어검사시기에있어서통계적으 J Korean Neurol Assoc Volume 28 No. 3,
3 윤지혜김선우이광호정진상나덕렬서미경김향희 Table 1. Aphasia classification table by Kertesz (1979) Fluency AudCom Repetition Naming Global aphasia 0~4 0~3.9 0~4.9 0~6 Broca s aphasia 0~4 4~10 0~7.9 0~8 Mixed transcortical aphasia 0~4 0~3.9 5~10 0~6 Transcortical motor aphasia 0~4 4~10 8~10 0~8 Wernicke s aphasia 5~10 0~6.9 0~7.9 0~9 Transcortical sensory aphasia 5~10 0~6.9 8~10 0~9 Conduction aphasia 5~10 7~10 0~6.9 0~9 Anomic aphasia 5`10 7~10 7~10 0~9 AudCom; auditory comprehension. 로의미있는차이는없었다. 각하위언어영역의평균점수및분포를제시하기위하여 Kertesz 의기준표 (Table 1) 에의해분류한피질경유실어증환자들의언어검사자료를분석하였다. Kertesz 의분류기준에서이름대기는유창성, 청각적이해력, 따라말하기의척도에비해점수의범위대가넓다. 이로인해이름대기하부과제의수행력은분류기준으로서의유용가치가작으므로피질경유실어증의하위유형간존재할수있는이름대기능력의차이를확인하기어렵다. 그러므로본연구에서는이름대기하부과제에속하는통제단어연상검사 (Controlled Oral Word Association Test, COWAT) ( 동물이름대기 ) 를통해분류가능여부를살펴보았다. 통제단어연상검사란제한된시간내에특정범주 ( 예 : 동물, 가게물건 ) 에포함되는사물 (semantic fluency) 또는특정음소 ( 예 : ㄱ, ㅅ ) 로시작하는단어 (phonemic fluency) 를가능한한많이산출하는과제로써, 이를통하여생성이름대기 (generative naming) 능력을확인할수있다. 생성이름대기능력은임상적으로유창성실어증과비유창성실어증환자를민감하게변별하는검사방법으로알려져있다. 17 선행연구결과 18 에서도생성이름대기능력은대면이름대기와서로상관관계를보이지않으므로개별적으로실시할것을제안하였다. 또한피질경유실어증하위집단간의실어증지수를비교하였다. Kertesz 16 는실어증지수 (Aphasia Quotient, AQ) 를실어증의정도를반영하는기준이라고하였지만감별진단의근거로는사용하지않았다. 이수주등 7 은 436 명의실어증환자들의실어증지수자료를분석하여실어증정도를 1군 ( 경도, 80.4~92.2), 2군 ( 경도 ~ 중도, 80.3~62.8), 3군 ( 중도 ~ 심도, 62.7~36.3), 4군 ( 심도, 36.2~0) 으로구분하였다. 하지만이러한분류는실어증의심한정도만을제시했을뿐아형간에존재할수있는차이를확인할수없다는한계점을가진다. 따라서본연구에서는 Kertesz 의계산법에따라스스로말하기 ( 내용전달및유창성 ), 청각적이해력, 따라말하기, 이름대기의네가지하위항목의점수를합산한후, 여기에 2를곱하여산출된점수를분석하였다. Figure 2. Sub-scores of K-WAB according to subtypes of transcortical aphasia. TCS; transcortical sensory aphasia, TCM; transcortical motor aphasia, Mixed TC; mixed transcortical aphasia, AudCom; auditory comprehension. 3. 통계및분석 수집된자료는 SPSS 통계분석프로그램 (Statistical Package for the Social Science, version 16.0) 을이용하였다. 피질경유실어증집단간의수행력비교는일원배치분산분석 (One-way ANOVA) 으로, 각하위집단간의차는투키 (Tukey) 사후검정 (post-hoc test) 으로확인하였다. 1. 하위언어검사 결과 하위집단에따른각하부검사의수행력점수를비교하고 (Fig. 2) 통계적검증을 Table 2에제시하였다. 유창성, 따라말하기, 이름대기하부과제의각점수는피질경유감각, 피질경유운동, 혼합피질경유실어증의순으로높았다. 유창성점수는피 168 대한신경과학회지제 28 권제 3 호, 2010
4 Table 2. Sub-scores of language test according to subtypes of transcortical aphasia Fluency AudCom Repetition Naming TCS (N=53) 7.45±1.30 (5~10) 5.32±1.31 (1.6~6.9) 8.83±0.62 (7.6~9.9) 4.88±2.29 (0.5~8.9) TCM (N=13) 3.73±0.72 * (2~4) 6.31±1.55 * (4.3~9.1) 8.76±0.46 (8.0~9.8) 4.12±1.52 (2.1~8.1) Mixed TC(N=14) 2.39±1.18 * (1~4) 2.33±0.91 * (0.3~3.9) 6.80±1.27 * (4.6~8.8) 1.11±1.31 * (0~5.3) TCS; transcortical sensory aphasia, TCM; transcortical motor aphasia, Mixed TC; mixed transcortical aphasia, AudCom; auditory comprehension. * p<0.01 between TCS and TCM, or between TCS and Mixed TC. p<0.01 between TCM and Mixed TC. Figure 3. Scores of naming and generative naming according to subtypes of transcortical aphasia. TCS; transcortical sensory aphasia, TCM; transcortical motor aphasia, Mixed TC; mixed transcortical aphasia, COWAT; controlled oral word association test. 질경유감각이피질경유운동보다 (p<0.01), 그리고피질경유운동이혼합피질경유실어증보다 (p<0.01) 수행력이높았다. 따라말하기와이름대기에서는피질경유감각과피질경유운동실어증집단이서로유사한점수를보였으나, 이두실어증집단의점수들이혼합피질경유실어증보다는높았다 (p<0.01). 한편, 청각적이해력은피질경유운동실어증에서가장점수가높았으며, 혼합피질경유실어증이가장낮았다. 구체적으로피질경유운동이피질경유감각보다 (p<0.01), 그리고피질경유감각이혼합피질경유실어증보다 (p<0.01) 청각적이해력이좋았다. 2. 생성이름대기 Figure 4. Distribution of aphasic types. AQ; aphasia quotient, TCS; transcortical sensory aphasia, TCM; transcortical motor aphasia, Mixed TC; mixed transcortical aphasia. 3. 실어증지수 피질경유감각, 피질경유운동, 혼합피질경유실어증의실어증지수에대한평균 ± 표준편차 ( 범위 ) 는각각 66.02±10.64 (40.6~ 84.9), 56.33±8.43 (44.0~76.3), 30.15±8.63 (19.8~42.7) 이었다 (Fig. 4). 피질경유감각, 피질경유운동, 혼합피질경유실어증의순서로실어증지수가높았으며, 이들세집단간차이는통계적으로유의하였다 (p<0.01). 1. 따라말하기 고찰 동물이름대기를이용한통제단어연상수행력을평균점수 ± 표준편차 ( 범위 ) 로살펴보면, 피질경유감각은 3.17±2.93 (0~11), 피질경유운동은 1.08±1.80 (0~6), 혼합피질경유실어증은 0.29 ±0.72 (0~2) 였다. 앞서언급했듯이하부과제로서의이름대기에서는피질경유감각과피질경유운동실어증간에점수차이가없지만, 동물이름대기과제의경우피질경유감각이피질경유운동실어증보다수행력이좋았다 (p<0.01) (Fig. 3). 혼합피질경유실어증은피질경유감각실어증보다낮은통제단어연상평균점수를보였으나 (p<0.01), 피질경유운동실어증과는차이가없었다. 피질경유실어증은 따라말하기 의능력이다른하부언어과제의수행력에비하여상대적으로보존된실어증유형으로알려져있다. 19 본연구에서도피질경유실어증의세하위집단모두가따라말하기과제에서유창성, 청각적이해력, 이름대기과제에비해높은수행력을보였다. 그러나본연구에서관찰한흥미로운점은피질경유실어증의유형에따라따라말하기수행력이다르다는것이다. 먼저, 혼합피질경유실어증이나머지두피질경유실어증집단에비해낮은따라말하기수행력을보였는데그이유는다음 J Korean Neurol Assoc Volume 28 No. 3,
5 윤지혜김선우이광호정진상나덕렬서미경김향희 과같이설명할수있다. 첫째, 따라말하기는다양한길이및복잡성을가진단어또는문장을자극으로사용한다. 자극이무의미음절단위이상으로길어지면소리를변별하는단순한듣기능력이아닌유입된말소리자극에대한언어이해력이뒷받침되어야한다. 이에따라피질경유실어증중에서청각적이해력이가장저하된혼합피질경유실어증집단이가장낮은따라말하기수행력을보였다고생각한다. 둘째, 구어산출을위한언어중추인브로카영역이보존되어도주변전두엽의손상으로말미암아따라말하기에영향을줄수있다. 이에피질경유운동실어증보다광범위한전두엽병변을갖게되는혼합피질경유실어증에서따라말하기수행력저하를예측할수있다. 마지막으로, 1948년골드스타인 (Goldstein) 에의하면혼합피질경유실어증은말산출영역만이고립적으로보존 (isolation of the speech area) 된언어장애로서 강박 (compulsive) 및 이해또는의도 (understanding or intention) 유형의따라말하기를보인다고하였다. 이주장에의해, 혼합피질경유실어증의따라말하기능력은상대가말한내용의일부분만을반향하는형태로써불완전하다고할수있다. 한편, 피질경유감각과피질경유운동실어증집단간에는따라말하기수행력의차이가없었다. 이두집단이따라말하기수행력이비슷한이유는다음과같다. 따라말하기는유입된청각적자극을조음기관을통하여구어로재산출하는과정이다. 따라서, 일차청각영역 (primary auditory area) 및베르니케영역을포함하는측두엽과브로카영역및일차운동영역 (primary motor area) 을포괄하는전두엽기능이모두필요하다. 이에근거하여청각적이해가어려운피질경유감각실어증과언어산출에문제를보이는피질경유운동실어증은따라말하기결함을보이는원인은서로다르지만결과적으로유사한수준의따라말하기능력을보일수있는것이다. 2. 생성이름대기 질경유감각실어증환자보다저하된수행력을보이는것이다. 이러한맥락에서생성이름대기과제는전두엽손상환자들을감지하고변별하는데매우유용한검사이다. 20,21 그런데전두엽기능저하는전두엽자체의손상뿐만아니라피질하손상에의해서도기인한다. 이는대뇌피질에서방출된신경정보가기저핵과시상을경유하면서억제및탈억제화되고, 다시대뇌피질로유입되는과정에서광범위한전두엽기능을조율하기때문이다. 22 이에원활한생성이름대기를수행하기위해서는전두엽자체의역할뿐만아니라전두엽기능을적절하게조율하는대뇌피질하구조의역할도함께고려하여야한다. 피질하구조가생성이름대기에관여한다는주장은다음두가지모델을통해서설명한다. 먼저, 생성이름대기는어휘를찾고인출하는능력에선행하는각성 (arousal) 과주의력 (attention) 이반드시요구된다. Response-release semantic feedback model 23 에따르면, 효과적인언어산출을위해서기저핵과시상의배측앞쪽 (ventral anterior) 이전두엽의적절한각성상태를유지한다고주장하였다. Selective engagement model 24 에서는시상손상이있는경우언어이해와따라말하기능력은보존되지만자발화, 대면이름대기및생성이름대기능력은저하된다고보고하여대뇌피질하구조의역할을시사하였다. 한편, 기능적자기공명영상 (functional magnetic resonance imaging, fmri) 을이용한생성이름대기연구 25 에서도기저핵과시상의활성화를보고하였으며, 기저핵의일부기능을제거한환자에서는단어유창성이저하되었다. 26 상기의생성이름대기산출기제와관련된이론이나선행된연구결과들을종합하면, 피질경유운동실어증집단의생성이름대기능력의저하는전두엽및피질하구조의손상또는이두구조사이를연결하는회로의손상에서기인하는것으로설명할수있다. 이러한결과는피질경유감각과피질경유운동실어증의감별시에전체이름대기점수보다생성이름대기인통제단어연상점수가유용하게사용할수있는근거가될수있다. 피질경유운동실어증과피질경유감각실어증간에전체이름대기점수는서로유사했으나, 전자의생성이름대기점수가후자의점수보다유의하게낮은이유는다음과같다. 피질경유운동실어증은전두엽기능저하 (frontal lobe dysfunction) 로인하여저장된단어를전략적으로인출하는것 (word retrieval) 이어렵지만, 피질경유감각실어증은단어저장소에서적절한단어를찾거나저장소로접근하는것이어렵기때문인것으로설명할수있다. 동물이름대기와같은통제단어연상검사는어휘를찾는언어능력과함께지속적으로단어를생성또는인출하는전두엽의기능을필요로하므로피질경유운동실어증이피 3. 실어증지수 150 명의실어증환자자료를근거로제작된 Kertesz 의실어증분류표는유창성, 청각적이해력, 따라말하기, 이름대기의획득점수에근거하여아형을분류한다. 그러나여기에포함된피질경유실어증환자의수는 17명 ( 피질경유감각실어증 8명, 피질경유운동실어증 4명, 혼합피질경유실어증 5명 ) 에불과하여이자료에서도출된실어증지수가일반적인피질경유실어증환자의실어증정도를반영한다고보기어렵다. 또한 Kertesz 는실어증지수가정도를나타내는의미있는점수라고주장하였지만 170 대한신경과학회지제 28 권제 3 호, 2010
6 감별진단을위한기준으로서의유용성은확인하지않았다. 이에본연구는 80명의피질경유실어증환자를대상으로그아형에따른실어증지수를살펴보았으며, 피질경유감각, 피질경유운동, 혼합피질경유실어증의순으로실어증지수점수가유의하게감소하는것을확인하였다. 이러한결과는실어증지수가실어증의정도를반영할뿐만아니라더불어피질경유실어증의하위유형을변별하는기준으로유용한항목임을시사한다. 결론 뇌졸중이후에환자의언어능력은연령, 학력, 직업, 병변의위치나크기등에따라다양하다. 이러한점을고려하면, 여러환자를동일한실어증유형으로분류한다할지라도상당히이질적인구성원으로이루어진집단일수있다. 따라서기존의분류기준에서경계선에위치하거나유형분류표의기준점과일치하지않는분류불가능의환자가존재한다. 이러한경우, 객관적기준에근거하지않은개개인의임상적경험이나소견등은감별진단의오류를발생시킬수있다. 또한부적절한판단은추후환자가어떻게그리고얼마나좋아질것인가를예측하고, 보다합리적인언어중재의방향을설정하는것자체를어렵게만든다. 따라서임상적감별진단은객관적인기준에근거하여야한다. 본연구는 80명의피질경유실어증환자들의언어평가적양상을자세히살펴보았고, 집단간에하위언어능력의차이를객관적으로증명하였다. 그리고피질경유실어증의감별은유창성, 청각적이해력, 따라말하기, 이름대기와함께통제단어연상및실어증지수를활용하는것이보다합리적인판단근거임을확인하였다. 추후연구를통해서는각피질경유실어증환자의언어특성에따른실제예후나삶의질과의관련성등의다양하고실제적인임상적보고가필요할것으로생각한다. REFERENCES 1. Heilman KM. Aphasia and the diagram makers revisited: an update of information processing models. J Clin Neurol 2006;2: Lee SK, Na DL, Park SH, Kim JM, Hong SB, Lee KW, et al. Transcortical motor aphasia. J Korean Neurol Assoc 1990;8: Park KW, Kim JW, Kim SH, Park JW, Cha JK, Kim S, et al. Clinical study of subcortical aphasia using brain SPECT and neurolinguistical methods. J Korean Neurol Assoc 1997;15: Kim CH, Bak KH, Kim JM, Kim MK. Transcotical mixed aphasia associated with severe head injury. Hanyang J Med 1998;18: Joo BG, Yoon SJ, Chun MH. Subcortical aphasia in stroke patients. J Korean Acad Rehab Med 1998;22: Kim DH, Kim MJ, Kwon HK, Lee HJ. Types, severity and prognostic factors in subcortical aphasia. J Korean Acad Rehab Med 1999;23: Lee SJ, Lee KW, Kim H, Kwon MS, Na DL, Chung CS, et al. Striatocapsular infarct and aphasia. J Korean Neurol Assoc 2001;19: Park KC, Yoon SS, Yoon KU, Suh MK, Na DL, Chang DI. A case of transcortical sensory aphasia after a left frontal lobe infarction. Dementia Neurocognitive Disorders 2003;2: Shim MS, Lee YS, Kim YH, Lee IS, Han SH. Transcortical mixed aphasia following left anterior cerebral artery infarction. Dementia Neurocognitive Disorders 2003;2: Kim EJ, Suh MK, Lee BH, Park KC, Ku BD, Chung CS, et al. Transcortical sensory aphasia following a left frontal lobe infarction probably due to anomalously represented language areas. J Clin Neurosci 2009;16: Maeshima S, Kuwata T, Masuo O, Yamaga H, Okita R, Ozaki F, et al. Trascortical sensory aphasia due to a left frontal subcortical haemorrhage. Brain Inj 1999;13: Maeshima S, Toshiro H, Sekiguchi E, Okita R, Yamaga H, Ozaki F, et al. Transcortical mixed aphasia due to cerebral infarction in left inferior frontal lobe and temporo-parietal lobe. Neuroradiology 2002;44: Warabi Y, Bandoh M, Kurisaki H, Nishio S, Hayashi H. Transcortical sensory aphasia due to extensive infarction of left cerebral hemisphere. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2006;46: Roberts L. Aphasia, apraxia and agnosia in abnormal states of cerebral dominance. Handbook of clinical neurology. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1969; Kim H, Na DL. Normative data on the Korean version of the Western Aphasia Battery. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2004;26: Kertesz A. Aphasia and associated disorders: Taxonomy, localization, and recovery. New York: Grune & Stratton Inc., 1979; Dunn ND, Russell SS, Drummond SS. Effect of stimulus context and response coding variables on word retrieval performances in dysphagia. J Commun Disord 1989;22: Kim A, Sim HS, Kim YT. A comparison of generative naming characteristics in fluent and non-fluent aphasics. Speech Sci 2004;11: Gonzalez Rothi L. Transcortical aphasias. In: LaPointe LL. Aphasia and related neurogenic language disorders. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers, 1990; Baldo JV, Shimamura AP. Letter and category fluency in patients with frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychology 1998;12: Vilkki J, Holst P. Speed and flexibility on word fluency tasks after focal brain lesions. Neuropsychologia 1994;32: Cappa SF, Vellar G. Neuropsychological disorders after subcortical lesions: implications for neural models of language and spatial attention. In: Vellar G, Cappa SF, Wallesch F. Neuropsychological disorders associated with subcortical lesions Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; Crosson B. Subcortical functions in language: a working model. Brain Lang 1985;25: Nadeau SE, Crosson B. Subcortical aphasia. Brain Lang 1997;58: Crosson B, Benefield H, Cato MA, Sadek JR, Moore AB, Wierenga CE, et al. Left and right basal ganglia and frontal activity during language generation: contributions to lexical, semantic and phonological processes. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2003;9: Whelan BM, Murdoch BE, Theodoros DG, Silburn P, Harding-Clark JA. Towards a better understanding of the role of subcortical nuclei participation in language: the study of a case following bilateral pallidotomy. Asia Pac J Speech Lang Hear 2000;5: J Korean Neurol Assoc Volume 28 No. 3,
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