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1 Clinical Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Volume 20 ㆍ Number 1 ㆍ April 2013 REVIEW ARTICLE 영유아에서철결핍빈혈의평가및관리 김순기 인하대학교의과대학인하대학교병원소아과학교실 Iron Deficiency Anemia in Infants and Young Children: Evaluation and Management Soon Ki Kim, M.D. Department of Pediatrics, Inha University Hospital, College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon, Korea Despite a sharp decline in the prevalence of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) during the past several decades owing to better nutrition and iron-fortified foods, IDA continues to remain the most common disorder in the world. From about 4 months of age, iron stores are insufficient to maintain the rapidly expanding blood volume associated with normal growth. If there is no steady dietary supply, iron stores become depleted and IDA develops. It is known that iron deficiency (ID) may impair not only physical activity but also mental functions such as learning. Children with ID are found to have more psychomotor deficits and achieve lower scores in aptitude tests than those with normal iron status. Therefore, the detection and treatment, or preferably prevention of ID and IDA is imperative during late infancy, when increased vulnerability to ID coincides with the rapid growth and differentiation of the brain. The diagnosis of IDA is confirmed by the findings of a hemoglobin level <11 g/dl and low iron stores (serum ferritin level <12 μg/l, transferrin saturation <16%). Iron status should be evaluated in children who have risk factors for IDA such as low birth weight, premature baby, exclusive breastfeeding beyond 6 months of life, and weaning to whole milk and complementary foods without iron-fortified foods. With the management of underlying cause, oral iron therapy should be given to replenish iron stores. Parenteral therapy may be used in children who cannot tolerate or absorb oral preparations. Key Words: Iron deficiency anemia, Infants, Children, Complementary foods, Iron preparation pissn / eissn Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2013;20:1 7 Received on March 23, 2013 Revised on April 5, 2013 Accepted on April 11, 2013 Corresponding author: Soon Ki Kim Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Inha University Hospital, 7-206, Shinheung-dong, Jung-gu, Incheon , Korea Tel: Fax: pedkim@inha.ac.kr 서론경제성장과식생활개선에따른영양상태의개선, 모유영양의지속, 철분강화분유및곡분의사용등으로철결핍빈혈 (iron deficiency anemia. IDA) 의빈도는많이감소하였지만, IDA는여전히가장흔한영유아기영양결핍증중의하나이다 [1-4]. 최근모유영양의증가가괄목할만하게증가하였다 [5]. 모유영양의수많은장점을고려하건대, 이는매우바람직한현상일것이다. 그러나이러한장점의극단에대한그림자인가? 장기간모유수유로인한부작용을종종목격하곤한다. 가장극명한예가 IDA 및비타민 D 부족이아닌가한다. 건강한아이는출생시에체중 kg 당 75 mg의철을갖고태어나는데, 대부분마지막 3분기동안에축적된다. 정상분만 1
2 Soon Ki Kim 아의철분상태는모체가심한빈혈이아니라면모체의철분상태와연관성이없지만, 미숙아는철분저장량이불충분하기때문에철분제보충이더욱중요하다 ( 뒤에설명 ). 보통만삭아에서는생후 3-6개월까지는출생시부터갖고있는철분으로충당이되지만, 출생체중의 3배가되면저장된철분은거의소진된다. 이후에는체외로부터섭취하지못하면철결핍이초래된다. 모유에함유된철은생체이용율 (bioavailability) 이높아섭취한철분의약 50% 가흡수된다. 그러나모유에는철이소량존재한다 ( mg/l). 모유에약 0.4 mg/l의철이함유되어있고, 하루 1 L의모유를먹는다고가정할때, 영아가흡수하는철분은하루 0.2 mg에불과하며, 이시기의왕성한성장에필요한 0.55 mg에는훨씬못미친다 [6,7]. 따라서장기간모유수유만으로는섭취할철분자체가부족하기쉽다. 더구나모유영양이높은흡수율로인하여철결핍을예방하지만, 이유식과정에서반드시거쳐야하는고형식의첨가가모유로부터의철분흡수를방해한다. 특히고형식이모유수유와같이주어질경우, 모유의생체이용율이감소한다. 이처럼영유아에있어철결핍의주원인은낮은함량뿐만아니라흡수율도낮기때문이다. 생우유 (cow s milk) 를돌전에줄경우, 철분이적게함유되어있고 (0.5 mg/l), 흡수율도모유에비해 10% 정도로작고, 다른음식내의철분섭취를방해한다. 일부영유아에있어생우유내에있는열민감단백 (heat labile protein) 이장출혈을일으킬수있다. 생우유는 9-12개월이후에주기시작하는것이일반적으로용인된방법이다 [8]. IDA는영유아의신경학적발달, 운동, 행동발달에도나쁜영향을미친다. 철분이부족한아이들은영유아발달검사에서불량한점수를보였고, 철분치료후에점수가향상되었다 (Table 1). 철분부족의영향이비가역적인가에관해서는논란이있는데, 나중에지속적인철분보충을하더라도영속적인발달장애의위험이있다는보고들이있다 [9,10]. 이에대해서는 IDA로진단된영아의사회적배경이불량하기때문이라는주장도있는만큼 [11], 이중맹검법에의한좀더큰규모의연구가이루어져야할것이다. 어쨌든두뇌발달의대부분이이루어지는영유아기에있어서철분부족에의한뇌의인지기능저하를막기위해서는충분한철분공급이있어야할것이다. 영유아기는골격계의빠른성장으로비타민 D가상대적으로더많이필요하므로비타민 D 결핍이일어날수있는시기이다. 모유의비타민 D 함량은 IU/L로 1일권장량 400 IU에비하여현저히적기때문에모유수유를주로하는영아는비타민 D 결핍의위험도가높고, 이러한영아가햇빛노출도적다면위험도는더높아진다 [19,20]. 중국, 파키스탄, 방글라데시, 아랍에미리트에서도모유수유를주로하는영아에서비타민 D 결핍증이 20-85% 나되었다 [21-23]. 국내에서비열성경련으로입원한모유수유아에서 IDA와함께저칼슘혈증및비타민 D 결핍증이동반되었다는보고가있고 [24], IDA 가진영유아에서 vitamin D 혈중농도가낮은경우가훨씬많았다 [25]. 비타민 D 결핍증은늦은시기까지모유수유만주로하는영아에서나타날수있는영양질환이고, 비타민 D를공급하는것이필요하다. Fig. 1의사진은필자병원의증례로서, 2 년 1개월남아가걸음이늦고심한내반슬 (genu varum) 이있어본원정형외과를통하여소아과에내원하였다. 환아는 13 개월동안모유수유하였고, 이유식을 5개월부터먹였는데, 간간이분유를시도하였으나잘안먹었다고한다. 방문시검사소견은 IDA (Hb 11 g/dl, MCV 72 fl, ferritin 6.12 ng/ml 이었는데, 이때는아마도 2세가넘었으므로, IDA가상당히개선된후의검사결과로해석됨 ) 와함께혈청 25-hydroxychole- Table 1. Association between iron deficiency and neurocognitive development Neurocognitive tests Outcome after iron therapy Reference Bayley mental development index Bayley scales of infant development Bayley scales of infant development Bayley scales of infant development Denver developmental screening test Bayley scales of mental and motor development Fagan test of infant intelligence object permanence and short-memory encoding and/or retrieval Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence New/old word recognition memory task ID, iron deficiency; IDA, iron deficiency anemia. ID infants-improved score ID and IDA infants-improved score Anemia and ID corrected-improved scores IDA infants had lower scores Achievement of developmental milestones in treated infants Improved Bayley scores in treated infants with IDA IDA infants had poorer scores IDA infants had lower scores at 5 years IDA children-decreased ability for word recognition at 10 years [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [9] [10] 2 Vol. 20, No. 1, April 2013
3 Iron Deficiency Anemia Fig. 1. Radiographs of a rickets patient at diagnosis, showing widening of growth plate; cupping of distal radius, ulna and distal tibia; metaphyseal fraying; irregularity of metaphyseal border; undermineralization. Fig. 2. Radiographs of a rickets patient after treatment. calciferol이 17.2 ng/ml로감소하였고, alkaline phosphatase 2,986 IU/L, parathyroid hormone pg/ml로증가되었다. 치료후, 6개월후의 X-선사진에서골의헤어짐 (fraying) 이개선된것을알수있다 (Fig. 2). 이렇게모유만의영양이강조된이유의하나가아토피피부염과음식알레르기에대한우려때문이었다. 아토피피부염의위험인자를가진영아는 6개월이전에이유식을시작하는경우아토피피부염의발생률이증가할수있으므로 6개월이지난후에이유식을시작할것을권유하고있지만, 6개월까지이유식을안하는것이아토피피부염의발생을낮추는지에대해서는논란이있다 [26,27]. 대규모의연구에서첫 4개월만의모유영양만으로충분할것같다는결론을내렸고 [28], 최근생후 4개월까지의모유수유는아토피피부염발생을낮추는데이롭지만, 2011년전문가에의한안내서에의하면, 고형식시작을 4-6개월이후로늦추지말도록권장하고있다 [29]. 이유식을 6개월이되어서시작할경우, 많은아이들이이유식을제대로필요한만큼먹지않는다는것이다 [30]. 그러므로 4-6개월사이에이유식을시작하는적응기간이필요할 것으로사료된다. 철결핍및 IDA의진단우리나라소아과학교과서에는 12개월에 Hb 측정을시행하도록하고있고 [31], 위험요소가있을경우에는다른기간에도시행하도록권유하고있다. 위험요소로는미숙아, 저체중출생, 납에노출, 영아기에생우유의과다섭취, 철분보충없이장기간모유만을수유했을때, 또는식사문제가있거나성장이불량한경우가포함된다 [32]. 그러나 Hb가정상수치이더라도철결핍이나부족은알수없기때문에검사에한계가있다. 그러므로가능한기회가있다면철분영양을평가하는것이확실한방법일것이다. Table 2에는검사종목에관하여기술해놓았다. 철분공급이부족하면, 우선철고갈 (iron depletion) 이일어나저장철이감소한다. 철저장의상태는골수검사하여 Prussian blue 염색을하여골수내의 hemosiderin을관찰하는것이정확하지만, 상용으로수행하기에는너무침습적방법이므로보 Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 3
4 Soon Ki Kim Table 2. Laboratory parameters of iron deficiency anemia in toddlers Laboratory test Hemoglobin Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) Red cell distribution width Reticulocyte Hb content (CHr) Erythrocyte zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) Serum transferrin saturation (iron/total iron binding capacity ratio) Serum ferritin (SF) Serum transferrin receptor (stfr) stfr:sf ratio Hepcidin Cutoff values <11 g/dl <70 fl >14.5% <27.5 pg >70 μmol/mol heme <16% <12 μg/l Cutoff varies with assay Increased Decreas 통철저장단백인 ferritin 검사로대신하고, 12 ng/ml 미만인경우철결핍에해당한다 [33,34]. 혈청 ferritin은감염이없으면비교적정확한상태를반영하지만, 감염이나염증성질환 ( 특히간질환 ), 결핵, 골수염, 만성신장질환이나신경모세포종같은종양에서증가할수있다. 철저장이다소모되면, 2단계로, 철분이고갈되어 Hb 합성이장애를받기시작하고, 효소내철분역시감소하므로정신신체및면역에관여하는효소의활성도가감소한다. 혈청철이감소하고 (<30 μg/dl), 혈청 transferrin은증가하며 (TIB C>350 μg/dl), 따라서 transferrin 포화도 (iron/tibc) 가 16% 미만 ( 어떤이는 10% 미만을주장 ) 으로떨어진다. Hb 합성을위한철의이용이제한되어있으므로 free erythyrocyte protoporphyrin이축적된다. 혈청철은여러가지인자 ( 식사로부터흡수, 감염, 염증, 하루중변동 ) 에의해영향을받기때문에철저장을정확하게반영하지않을지도모른다. 철의농도는아침에높고밤에낮다. 그러므로아침이나이른오후에채혈하는것이더좋다. TIBC 역시영양부족, 염증, 만성감염이나암질환에서감소한다. 더진행하면, 제3단계가되는데, Hb를생산하기에필요한철분을갖고있지않은상태가된다. 그러므로저구성, 저색소성빈혈은심하게철결핍의영향을받은상태를말한다. 빈혈뿐아니라, 평균적혈구용적 (mean corpuscular volume, MCV), 평균적혈구혈색소량 (mean corpuscular hemoglobin, MCH) 이감소하고, 적혈구크기분포폭 (red cell distribution width, RDW) 은상승한다. 그리고 heme precursor 인 free erythrocyte protoporphyrins (FEP) 증가한다 (1-2세영유아에서> 70 μg/dl RBC or >1.24 mmol/l RBC). 혈청 transferrin 수용체 (transferrin receptor, TfR) 는조직의 TfR에서떨어져나온것이다. 조직 TfR는인체내모든세포에 존재하는 transmembrane glycoprotein 인데철을가장많이필요로하는조직에가장높은농도로존재한다. 혈청 TfR는조직내철결핍시증가하므로, 철결핍의초기표지자 (marker) 로서유용하다. 혈청 TfR는 IDA에서증가하고, 급성감염시에증가하지않는다. 혈청 TfR/log of ferritin (stfr-f index) 값이증가하면철결핍을의미하고, 그렇지않은경우이면만성질환빈혈을의미한다. Zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) 은 heme 합성의최종단계에서철대신아연 (zinc) 이 protoporphyrin에통합되어형성된다. 철의공급이부족한경우 ZPP는증가하여 ZPP/heme 비가증가한다. ZPP/heme 비는 Hb 합성동안철의상태를반영하여빈혈이없더라도철결핍을탐지할수있다. ZPP와 EPP (erythrocyte protoporphyrin은보통 ZPP로서측정된다 ) 는철결핍, 납중독이나만성감염시증가하며, 최근의철제복용에영향받지않는다. 망상적혈구 Hb 양 (reticulocyte hemoglobin content, CHr) 은망상적혈구내의철함유단백의농도를 flow cytometry로측정한것으로, MCV, MCH 감소에비하여먼저감소한다. 즉, IDA가발생하기전인 iron deficiency erythropoiesis를탐지가능하다. Hepcidin은간에서생성되는호르몬으로철생체이용률을조정함으로써철의필요량에책임을지는역할을한다. Hepcidin은장세포및대식세포의세포표면의 ferroportin에결합하여세포에서혈장으로의철이동을차단하여, 혈청철을감소시킨다. IDA 같은적혈구생성이가속화될필요가있을경우에는 hepcidin 표현이감소하여철의이용도가증가하고반면, 염증이나이어지는격리 (sequestration) 시에는 hepcidin 이유도, 증가되어침범한병원체에대한면역반응을증강시킨다. 국내에서소아를대상으로한연구에서도 IDA에서 hepcidin이감소하였다 [35]. IDA의치료및예방 1) 경구용철분제철결핍이나 IDA가발견되면철분치료와함께영양상담이필요하다. 혹자는 IDA가있을경우에소고기를추천하는데, 이것은치료제가아니고, 단지철분이약간많은음식일뿐이다. 치료는철분제로해야한다. 보통 2가철을함유한경구용 ferrous 염 (sulfate, gluconate, fumarate) 이선택제이며경제적이다. 용량은원소철 (elemental iron) 3-6 mg/kg/day를공복이나식전 30분에하루 3회로나누어주는데, 정상적인십이지장은원소철 25 mg으로포화되기때문이다. 음식이나 4 Vol. 20, No. 1, April 2013
5 Iron Deficiency Anemia 제산제가철분흡수를감소시킬수있으므로공복이나식전 30분에먹이는것도좋다. Hb가정상화된후에도 2-3개월계속철분제를공급하고, 약을끊고 6개월후에 Hb를다시측정하는것이필요할수도있다. Ferrous sulfate는원소철이 20% 로서, 식사사이에주스와함께주면무난한약이다. Ferrous sulfate로 Ferrimond R 시럽 ( 보완 ) 이있고, 정제로는훼로바-유 R ( 원소철 80 mg/t), Hemocontin R ( 원소철 100 mg으로, 비타민 B공유 ), 헤모스쿨 R 등이있다. 부작용으로, 위장불쾌감 ( 복통, 구역질 ), 설사, 변비, 더부룩함같은증세가있기때문에약을잘먹지않으려는아이도있다. 변이검게나오고, 치아착색이나변비를보일수있으며, 과량섭취에의한중독의위험이있다. Ferrous gluconate (50 mg의원소철함유 ) 는부작용이약간적어서초기치료에좋다. 보충철의흡수는약의형태에따라다르다 (Table 3). Multivitamin의형태, 특히칼슘이사용될경우흡수가저하된다. 종합비타민과미네랄은식사나차와커피와함께복용시, 철의흡수는감소한다. 비타민 C는철흡수를증가시킨다. Polysaccharide/iron complex는앞에말한약제와는달리, 넓은 ph에서용해성이며원소철 150 mg처럼많은양을주어도먹기쉽다. 훼럼메이트 R, 훼럼키드 R, 훼럼포라 R, 훼로맥스 R 등이있다. Iron (III) hydroxide polymaltose complex 제제인 Ferrummate R 는철 (III) 100 mg/5 ml 비율로함유되어있고, 같은성분으로농축된 Ferrumkid R syrup (45 ml/bottle) 은 Fe3+ 로서 50 mg/ml 원소철을함유하고있다. 철분치료시, 가장먼저나타나는반응으로기분이좋아지고, 보챔이감소하며식욕이증가하는데, 이는세포내철분관련효소의회복때문이다. 이어서골수반응이일어나고 4-5 일이되어서망상구가최고로증가하고, 철분저장은 Hb가증가된후에야비로소일어난다. 치료 1개월후에 Hb 측정을반복하여 1 g/dl 이상증가하면 IDA를확인할수있다. 혈색소수치가상승하지않으면 다른원인을찾아보아야한다. 약을지시대로안먹었거나 (noncompliance), 계속적으로혈액이어딘가로새나가거나, 치료기간이나용량이부족할때, 위 ph가높을때, 철흡수나이용을방해할경우또는진단이잘못될경우가있다. 하루 50 mg 이상의철분을보충하는경우흔한불평중하나가변비와위장장애인데, 이로인해처방을따르지않는것이문제이다. 2) 비경구용철분제경구용철을허용할수없거나흡수할수없는경우나경구복용을지키지않을때, 철저장을급격히올리기원할때, 위장관흡수가방해받을때, 신장투석환자에서 erythropoietin 치료가필요할때, 정맥을통하여공급한다. 과거에는 highmolecular weight (HMW) iron dextran이사용되었으나, 호흡억제나저혈압을포함한아나필락시스반응이종종보고되었다. 최근에는 low molecular weight (LMW) iron dextran이나 iron gluconate가도입되면서급성기부작용이줄어들었으나, 드물게아나필락시스반응을보였다. 안전성때문에최근에는 ferric gluconate나 iron sucrose가널리사용되고있다. Iron sucrose ( 예 : Venoferrum R, 100 mg Fe/5 ml) 는소아의사용례가제한되어있긴하지만, 소아와청소년의 IDA에서도안전하게사용할수있다고보고되었다 [36,37]. 시험용량으로소아의경우 1일사용량의 1/2 앰플을투여한후 15분이상부작용이관찰되지않으면나머지를투여한다. 시험용량의투여는투여시마다실시한다. 정맥철분제제투여시철부족량에따라총투여량을정해야하는데일반적으로총투여량을 1주일에 2-3회, 1회에 1-2 ample ( mg) 로나누어투여하며정맥직접주입하는경우 10분이상에걸쳐서서히투여하여야한다. 필자의경우, 근래경구용제제에반응하지않거나장절제술을받은 3명의환자 ( 방문시 Hb 각각 4.5 g/dl, 5.3 g/dl 및 6.1 g/dl) 에서사용한바, 효과적이었고, 특별한부작용은없었다. Table 3. Treatment of iron deficiency Absorption Side effects Preparations Cost Ferrous sulfate (20% elemental iron) Polysaccharide-iron complex Carbonyl iron Sustained-release Capsule or enteric-coated tablet ± ± ± Syrup Tablets Capsule 150 mg Elixir 100 mg/5 ml Multiple Multiple + ++ Clin Pediatr Hematol Oncol 5
6 Soon Ki Kim 근육주사는부작용 ( 피부착색, 발진, 발열, 동통, 괴사, 천식, 치명적 anaphylaxis, 발한, 쇼크 ) 이많아쓰지않는다. 3) 수혈가능하면안하는것이좋으나, Hb 4-6 g/dl 미만의심한빈혈이있거나동반된감염이치료반응을저해할경우에줄수있다. 전혈 1 ml에는 0.5 mg의철이함유되어있다. 4) IDA의예방이유식 ( 보충식 ) 의시작시기는 6개월부터하자는의견과 4-6개월사이에시작하자는주장으로크게나뉜다. WHO는 2001년에적어도첫 6개월동안모유만먹이는것을모유수유의일반적인권장사항으로채택하였고 [38], 이런원칙이우리나라에서도대세인듯하다. 미국소아과학회에서는완전모유수유를수유집단의여건에따라달리적용하고있었지만, 최근 6개월의주장이강하게되고 [39], 유럽에서는 4개월이전에이유식을주지말고, 또한 6개월이후로늦추지말도록주장한다 [40]. 그러나이원칙에는아이들에게철분이충분한이유식을먹이고, 아이들은이러한이유식을충분히잘먹어야한다는가정이전제되어야한다. 우리나라의경우철분강화와는거리가있는, 주로집에서만든이유식이주어지고있기때문에철분부족의위험성이매우크다. 필자의경험상상당수아이들이이유식을잘못먹고, 만들어주는이유식의철분함량은불충분하였다 [30]. 철분외에도아연이나비타민 A, B6, D 영양역시문제가될수있다. IDA를종종접하는우리현실에서는모유만을먹이는영아는 6개월이상모유수유를격려하되, 4-6개월부터이유식을시도하고, 이유식에는철분강화음식이포함되어야한다는것이다. 생우유는 9-12개월이후에주기시작하고 [8], 돌이지나서는양을늘이되, 하루섭취를 ml 이하로제한하는것이 IDA를예방하기위해서좋은방법일것이다. 2010년미국소아과학회지침에따르면, 6-12개월영아는하루에 11 mg의철이필요하고, 1-3세에서는하루 7 mg이필요하다. 국내에서는 5개월부터 3세까지하루 8 mg의철분을권장하고있다 [41]. 현실적으로용이한방법의하나는 6개월이후영아의경우, 철강화영아용시리얼을하루두단위이상먹이고, 9-12개월부터고기를갈아서주는것이다. 1세이후에는철분이풍부한음식을격려하며, 생우유는 700 ml 까지만먹이는것이안전할것이다. 이유식기간에철분강화분유를하루두단위이상먹이지않을경우에는 1 mg/kg의철분을먹여야할것이다. 그러나 현실은대부분의부모가철분제를먹이지않았다는것이다 [42]. 미숙아나저체중출생아는 6개월이전에하루 2-4 mg/kg의철을공급하고 6개월이전에빈혈선별검사를실시한다. 1 kg 미만인미숙아의경우 3-4 mg/kg/day, 1 kg 이상의미숙아는 2-3 mg/kg/day의철분을보충해야한다. 결론적으로, 철결핍및 IDA는여전히흔히접하는질환으로, 현재의영양방법으로는위험성이존재한다. 보충식없이모유영양을 6개월고수할것인지에관해서는충분한연구가진행되어야할것이며, 철결핍의위험성이있는그룹은철분영양을포함한혈액검사가필요할것이다. 철분치료는 Hb가정상화된후에도 2-3개월지속하고, 영양교육역시병행하여제공되어야할것이다. 참고문헌 1. Looker AC, Dallman PR, Carroll MD, Gunter EW, Johnson CL. Prevalence of iron deficiency in the United States. JAMA 1997; 277: Yang YJ, Kim SK, Hong YJ, et al. The Prevalence of iron deficiency in preschool children. Korean J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1998;5: Wu AC, Lesperance L, Bernstein H. Screening for iron deficiency. Pediatr Rev 2002;23: Brotanek JM, Gosz J, Weitzman M, Flores G. Iron deficiency in early childhood in the United States: risk factors and racial/ethnic disparities. Pediatrics 2007;120: Moon JS. Nutritional management of breastfeeding infants for the prevention of common nutrient deficiencies and excesses. Korean J Pediatr 2011;54: Fomon SJ. Nutrition of normal infants. 1st ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book, Inc., Fomon SJ, Ziegler EE, Nelson SE. Erythrocyte incorporation of ingested 58Fe by 56-day-old breast-fed and formula-fed infants. Pediatr Res 1993;33: Michaelsen KF. Cows milk in complementary feeding. Pediatrics 2000;106: Lozoff B, Jimenez E, Wolf AW. Long-term developmental outcome of infants with iron deficiency. N Engl J Med 1991;325: Congdon EL, Westerlund A, Algarin CR, et al. Iron deficiency in infancy is associated with altered neural correlates of recognition memory at 10 years. J Pediatr 2012;160: Grantham-McGregor S, Ani C. A review of studies on the effect of iron deficiency on cognitive development in children. J Nutr 2001;131(2S-2):649S-66S. 12. Oski FA, Honig AS, Helu B, Howanitz P. Effect of iron therapy on behavior performance in nonanemic, iron-deficient infants. 6 Vol. 20, No. 1, April 2013
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