농업생명과학연구 47(5) pp.19-28 Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 47(5) pp.19-28 잣나무조림지에서확인된생태적복원효과 김세미 1 안지홍 1 임윤경 1 피정훈 1 김경순 1 이호영 2 조용찬 3 배관호 4 이창석 5* 1 서울여자대학교대학원생물학과, 2 산림청, 3 국립수목원, 4 경북대학교생태환경시스템학부, 5 서울여자대학교생명환경공학과 접수일 (2013 년 4 월 15 일 ), 수정일 (2013 년 9 월 7 일 ), 게재확정일 (2013 년 10 월 7 일 ) The Effects of Ecological Restoration Confirmed in the Pinus koraiensis Plantation Se-mi Kim 1 Ji-Hong An 1 Yun-Kyung Lim 1 Jung-Hun Pee 1 Gyung-Soon Kim 1 Ho-Young Lee 2 Yong-Chan Cho 3 Kwan-Ho Bae 4 Chang-Seok Lee 5* 1 Department of Biology, Graduate School of Seoul Women s University, Seoul 139-774, Korea 2 Korea Forest Service, Daejeon 302-701, Korea 3 Korea National Arboretum, Pocheon 487-821, Korea 4 Faculty of Ecology & Environment system, Kyungpook National University, Sangju 742-711, Korea 5 Department of Bio and Environmental Technology, Seoul Women s University, Seoul 139-774, Korea Received: APR. 15. 2013, Revised: SEP. 7. 2013, Accepted: OCT. 7. 2013 초록 조성연도가다른잣나무조림지에서조림후시간이경과함에따라식생의발달과정을분석하였다. 잣나무의높이와직경은 27 년생식분까지빠르게생장하였고, 그이후의생장은큰변화를보이지않았다. 밀도는식분의연령이증가함에따라감소하는경향이었다. 식생조성에기초하여조성연도가다른잣나무조림지의식분을대조구식분과함께서열화한결과, 잣나무조림지식분들은독자적인변화경향을보이고대조구식분과는차이를보였다. 주요종의직경급별빈도분포를분석한결과, 잣나무조림지는대체로물푸레나무가우점하는식생으로의천이경향을보였지만지소에따라신갈나무가우점하는식생으로의천이경향도나타났다. 종다양성은모든지소들이대조지소보다높게나타났다. 잣나무조림지에는대조구에는전혀출현하지않는외래종이출현하였지만그비율은 3% 이하로낮았다. 이러한결과를통해서볼때, 잣나무조림지는우리나라의주요조림수종인리기다소나무, 아까시나무, 일본잎갈나무의조림지에서일반적으로나타나는대조구와유사한종조성, 자생참나무류가우점하는식생으로의천이등의복원효과가나타나지않았다. 이러한차이는다른조림지가과도한이용에의해황폐해진삼림을기능적으로복원하기위해시도된사방조림인반면에잣나무조림지는유용자원으로서잣을얻기위해조성되어지속적으로인위적간섭이이루어지는데서비롯된결과로해석되었다. 검색어 - 식생발달, 잣나무, 종다양성, 종조성, 천이추세 ABSTRACT Developmental process of vegetation over years after afforestation was analyzed in the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) plantations with different stand ages. Height and diameter of Korean pine increased rapidly until 27 years after afforestation and tended to be blunted since then. Density of Korean pine tended to be reduced with the increase of stand age. As the result of stand ordination of Korean pine plantations with different ages based on floristic composition, Korean pine plantations showed a changing depending on stand age but a difference from the reference, Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica) stands. Korean pine plantations showed the trend to be usually succeeded to the native vegetation dominated by ash (Fraxinus rhynchophylla) but partially by Mongolian oak as the results of analysis based on the frequency distribution by diameter class * Corresponding author: Chang-Seok, Lee Tel: +82-2-970-5822 Fax: +82-2-970-5974 E-mail: leecs@swu.ac.kr
20 Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 47(5) of major tree species. Species richness and diversity of all plantations were higher than those of the reference vegetation. On the other hand, the exotic plants, which no appear in the reference stands, appeared in the Korean pine stands but the percentage was very low as it is below 3%. As were shown in the above mentioned results, the Korean pine plantation did not show restoration effects such as species composition similar to the reference stands, successional trend toward the vegetation dominated by the native oaks and so on. The background of the difference is as follows. The other plantations were created to control erosion in the forest degraded due to excessive uses, whereas the Korean pine plantations were to get seeds as an useful resource. Therefore the former stands are no longer interfered artificially but the latter is dominated continuously by artificial interferences. Key words - Vegetation development, Pinus koraiensis, Species diversity, Floristic composition, Succession trend Ⅰ. 서론 지금까지알려진육상동 식물의절반이상이삼림에살고있는것으로평가되고있으며 (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005), 삼림의파괴는생물다양성이소실되는주요원인으로서지구적차원의관심사항이다 (Wilson, 1988; Brook et al., 2003; Laurance, 2007). 지구적차원에서자연및반자연림은주로농경지로매년약 1,300만 ha씩전환되고있다 (FAO, 2006; 2007). 조림지는전체삼림면적의겨우 3.5%( 약 1억 4,000만ha) 를차지하지만, 세계적으로삼림면적이감소하는추세와달리조림지면적은매년 200 300 만 ha씩증가하고있다. 조림지는조림 (afforestation) 또는재조림 (reforestation) 과정에서하나또는그이상의자생또는도입종을식재하거나파종하여성립되고있다 (FAO, 2006). 일제강점기와한국전쟁기간동안한국의삼림은심각하게훼손되어 1900년대초 ha 당약 100m 3 이던평균재적량이 1960년에는 10.6m 3 로감소하였다 (Korea Forest Service, 2000). 이러한훼손된삼림을복원하기위해리기다소나무, 일본잎갈나무등의속성수, 아까시나무와오리나무류의비료목, 건축재, 가구재, 선박재및식용열매수확등에사용되 는용재수목으로잣나무를식재하여, 토양조건의개선, 침식방지및연료소비를충족시켜왔다 (Kim, 2004; Lee et al., 2004). 이러한대규모조림은 1959년부터시작되어 1999년까지훼손된지역의약 97% 를복구시켰다 (Korea Forest Service, 2000). 조림지에서생물다양성보존을위한시업과그들의지속적인확산이활발하게논의되고있다. 조림지관리자가점차생물다양성보존의필요성을인식하고많은사람들이지속가능한관리지침 (Forest Stepwardship Council, 2007) 을따르고있지만생물다양성보존에도움이된다는보장이없고 (Gullison, 2003) 조림에대한비판도여전히강하며 (Cossalter & Pye-Smith, 2003), 여러환경단체들사이에서는조림에대해반대기류가널리퍼져있다 (Carrere & Lohmann, 1996; World Rainforest Movement, 2007). 반면에 Lugo (1997) 는외래종조림지는훼손된지역에서안정된토양과자생식물이이입되기좋은환경을만들어자생식물의회복을돕는다고보고한바있고, 조림지의조성연도가증가할수록주변의이차림과유사한종조성을보이고, 종다양성도늘어난다는사실을밝혔다 (Sonali, 2001; Shin, 2005). Lee et al. (2004) 는교란강도가다른몇몇지역의아까시나무조림지를대상으로생태적특성
Kim et al : The Effects of Ecological Restoration Confirmed in the Pinus koraiensis Plantation. 21 을분석한결과성공적인복원을이루어내고있음을밝혀조림에대한긍정적인측면에대한연구도이루어지고있다. 복원은교란되기이전의생태학적기능, 물리적, 화학적및생물학적특성을재성립하는것으로 (Palmer et al., 2006), 진정한복원은교란이전상태에대한연구를기반으로이와유사한조건을갖춘상태로되돌려놓는것이다. 즉, 자연적이며자기유지적인생태계를생태학적원리를바탕으로재창조하는것으로 (Berger, 1993), 자연의회복능력에맡기는방법, 최소한의생물에너지를투입하여회복을촉진시키는방법, 종자의파종및묘목의식재로적극적인생물에너지를투입하여빨리회복시키는방법등훼손정도에따라그방법도다르다 (Bradshaw, 1984). 이러한점에서조림은복원의한유형으로고려할수있다. 생태계의구조및기능은복원사업의성공효과를평가하는데이용할수있다. 생태계의모든면을모든복원수준에적용할수는없지만, 복원지소와대조지소의종조성의유사성, 종다양성, 물리적안정성, 자기유지가능성등은복원의성공정도평가지표로이용할수있다 (SERI, 2004). 따라서본연구는조성연도가다른잣나무조림지에서식생발 달과정을통한생태적변화를분석하여그결과를복원효과로평가하는데목적을두고있다. Ⅱ. 재료및방법 2.1 조사지개황본연구는강원도태백시및삼척시일원에조성된잣나무조림지를대상으로수행하였다. 연구대상은조림후 8년, 14년, 27년및 34년경과된식분을선정하였다 (Table 1 and Fig. 1). 식분의연령은지상 10 cm 높이에서채취한연륜시료의나이로부터구하였다. 조사대상식분은해당지역의지형적위치때문에 600 m 이상의지역에서선정되었다. 조사지소들이위치한강원도태백시는북위 37 03' 37 20', 동경 128 52' 129 06' 에위치하며연평균기온 8.70, 강수량 1,324.3 mm 로나타났다. 토지이용유형은임야가대부분을차지하는 (271.62km 2, 89.4%) 전형적인산촌경관의특성을보이고있다 (Taebaek City Hall, 2009). 강원도삼척시는북위 37 02 37 28, 동경 128 57 129 21 에위치하며, 연평 Table 1. Stand age and geographic position of study sites. Species Stand age Location Pinus koraiensis Quercus mongolica 8 14 27 34 32 Beoncheon-ri Hajang-myeon Samcheok-si Sugam-ri Hajang-myeon Samcheok-si Tong-dong Taebaek-si Mungoksodo-dong Taebaek-si Sodo-dong Taebaek-si Altitude (m) Aspect ( ) Slope ( ) Latitude Longitude 796 81 6 37 23' 01.54" 129 00' 01.42" 759 157 15 37 21' 35.33" 128 59' 24.09" 753 87 28 37 11' 08.34" 129 00' 27.01" 660 18 34 37 07' 30.27" 129 00' 3.53" 1,005 77 23 37 08' 42.07" 128 56' 59.88"
22 Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 47(5) Figure 1. A map showing the study sites of Pinus koraiensis plantation. 균기온 12.5, 강수량 1,300mm 로나타났다. 토지이용유형은임야가대부분을차지하는 (1,047km 2, 88.3%) 전형적인산촌경관의특성을보이고있다 (Samcheok City Hall, 2009). 이지역의인근산림은생태자연도 1~2등급으로써신갈나무및소나무가우점하고있다. 8년생식분의밀도를조림밀도로삼았다. 2.2 조사구설치식생조사를위한조사구는능선부가포함되지않도록사면상부에설치하였다. 조사구크기는성숙한식분의상층식생높이를고려하여 20m 20m 크기로정하였다. 조사구는식분의연령단계별로 5개씩총 20개설치하였다. 대조구는해당지역의잠재자연식생으로인정되는신갈나무군락에정하였다 (Kim & Kil, 2000). 대조구에대한조사는 20m 20m 크기의방형구를 5개설치하여수행하였다. 해발고도 (m), 경도및위도는 GPS(GARMIN GPSMAP 60CSx) 를이용하여측정하였고, 경사도와방위는나침반 (SUNNTO PM5) 을이용하여측정하였다. 2.3 식생자료수집및분석식생을이루고있는식물의높이는거리측정기 (Haglof Distance Measurer, DME 201) 를이용하여측정하였고, 직경은지상 10cm 높이의근주직경을줄자를이용하여측정하였다. 식생조사는각조사구에서 Braun-Blanquet (1964) 법을적용하여수행하였다. 식분별종조성을비교하기위하여 DCA(Detrended Correspondence Analysis) 서열법을적용하였다. 수집된식생자료에서각종의피도계급을그계급이나타내는식피율범위의중간값으로전환한후전체출현종의합에대한각종의상대값으로구한중요치 (impotant value) 로삼았다. 이과정에서출현빈도 5% 이하의
Kim et al : The Effects of Ecological Restoration Confirmed in the Pinus koraiensis Plantation. 23 식분을이루는주요종의직경급분포는각조사구에출현하는모든교목성수종의근주직경 ( 지상 5cm ) 을측정하여조사하였다. 종다양성은종순위-우점도곡선을작성하여조사하였고, Shannon Index(H') (Shannon, 1948; Brower & Zar, 1977) 에의한검토를병행하였다. 식물의동정은 Lee (1996), Park (1995) 및 Park (2001) 을따랐다. Ⅲ. 결과 3.1 잣나무조림지의생장및밀도변화잣나무의높이및직경생장은 27년생식분까지빠른생장을유지하고, 그이후의생장은큰변화를보이지않았다. 밀도는 8년생식분에서 14년생식분까지크게감소하였고, 그이후에는임령증가에따라점차감소하는경향이었다 (Fig. 2). 3.2 식생의종조성 종조성자료에기초하여조성연도가다른잣나무 조림지와대조구의식분들을서열화한결과 (Fig. 3), Figure 2. Changes of height(m), diameter(cm), and density(stems/ha) over years after afforestation in the Pinus koraiensis plantations (a: height, b: diameter, c: density). 종은제외하였다. 서열분석은 PC-ORD(Version 4.20; McCune & Mefford, 1999) 프로그램을이용 하여수행하였다. Figure 3. The result of DCA ordination based on species composition of Pinus koraiensis plantation and reference stands, Quercus mongolica stands.
24 Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 47(5) 식분의배열은조성연도가같은식분들이서로가까이위치하고, 조성연도에따른변화는뚜렷한경향을찾을수없었다. 잣나무조림지의식분들은 2축상의위쪽에서아래쪽으로이동함에따라 8년생식분, 14년생식분, 27 년생식분및 34년생식분순으로식분연령에따라배열되는경향이었다. 이는잣나무조림지식분들은독자적인변화과정을거쳐, 대조구식분과는차이가나타나는결과로해석할수있다. 3.3 식생의동태주요종의직경급분포를분석하여식생의동태를파악하였다. 잣나무조림지에출현하는주요교목성 수종의직경급분포를나타낸결과 (Fig. 4), 8년생잣나무조림지에서잣나무는 0 1cm 계급으로부터 7cm이상계급사이에서정규분포형의분포를보였다. 반면에물푸레나무는 2 3cm이하의계급에서역 J자형분포를보였다. 14년생잣나무조림지에서잣나무는 2 4cm 계급부터 14cm이상계급까지정규분포형의분포를보였다. 한편, 신갈나무는 2 4cm이하의계급에서역 J자형분포를보였다. 27년생잣나무조림지에서잣나무는 0 5cm 계급으로부터 35cm이상의계급사이에서정규분포형의분포를보였다. 물푸레나무와신갈나무는 5 10cm 이하의계급에서역 J자형분포를보였다. Figure 4. Frequency distribution diagrams of diameter classes of major tree species in Pinus koraiensis plantation (a: 8 years old stand, b: 14 years old stand, c: 27 years old stand, d: 34 years old stand).
Kim et al : The Effects of Ecological Restoration Confirmed in the Pinus koraiensis Plantation. 25 34년생잣나무조림지에서는잣나무는 15 20cm 계급에서부터 35 cm이상의계급사이에서정규분포형의분포를보였다. 반면에물푸레나무는 5 10cm 계급이하에서역 J자형분포를보였다. 3.4 종다양성잣나무조림지의종풍부도는 8년생식분 (100종) 에서가장높았고, 27년생식분 (95종), 14년생식분과 34년생식분 (62종) 순으로이어졌고, 대조구의종풍부도 (51종) 가가장낮았다 (Fig. 5). 3.5 잣나무조림지의외래종변화잣나무조림지의외래종비율은메밀, 개망초, 일본잎갈나무가출현한 8년생식분 (2.2%) 에서가장높았고, 일본잎갈나무가출현한 34년생식분 (0.7%), 개망초가출현한 14년생식분 (0.6%) 및 27년생식분과대조구 (0%) 순으로나타났다 (Fig. 6). Figure 6. Changes of percentage of exotic species over years after afforestation in the Pinus koraiensis plantations. (P<0.05) 대조구에서출현하지않은외래종이 8 년생식분, 34 년생식분및 14 년생식분에서 3% 미만의낮은 비율로출현하였다. Figure 5. Species rank-abundance curve and Shannon index (H') based on vegetation data in Pinus koraiensis plantation and reference stands, Quercus mongolica stands. 종다양성은 8 년생식분 (H'=5.52) 이가장높았고, 14 년생식분 (H'=4.75), 27 년생식분 (H'=4.52) 및 34 년생식분 (H'=3.97) 순으로이어졌으며, 대조구의 종다양성 (H'=3.08) 이가장낮게나타났다 (Fig. 5). 종풍부도와종다양성지수에근거한순위가차 이를보이는것은종순위 - 우점도곡선의기울기 차이로표현되는균등도차이에기인한것으로해석 할수있다. Ⅳ. 고찰 4.1 대조지소와비교된잣나무조림지의종조성조림후경과년수가다른잣나무조림지와대조구인신갈나무식분을수집된식생자료에근거하여서열화한결과 (Fig. 3), 잣나무조림지의식분들은 2 축상의위쪽에서아래쪽으로식분연령에따라배열되는경향이었다. 즉그들은대조구와떨어져독자적인변화를거치는것으로평가되었다. 14년생조림지가그중가장유사한종조성을보였는데, 이러한결과는이지소에서신갈나무의중요치가높은것과관련이있다. 반면에, 다른연령의식분들은
26 Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 47(5) 물푸레나무 (Fraxinus rhynchophylla) 가우점하고고로쇠나무 (Acer pictum subsp. mono) 와피나무 (Tilia amurensis) 의중요치가높아차이를보였다. 4.2 잣나무조림지의천이추세잣나무조림지에출현하는주요교목성수종의직경급별빈도분포를비교한결과 (Fig. 4), 우점종인잣나무는성숙목계급에주로출현하고유식물집단에서는출현빈도가낮았다. 반면에물푸레나무를비롯한자생식물은유식물집단에서출현빈도가높은역 J자형분포를보여유식물이계속보충되고있음을알수있다. 이러한분포유형의개체군들이조합되어군집을이룰때군집의변화는유식물의보충이계속되는종이우점하는군집으로변해간다고알려져있다 (Lee at al., 2004; Lee at al., 2006; Lee at al., 2008). 따라서잣나무조림지는물푸레나무를중심으로한자생식물군락으로천이될것으로예측되었다. 4.3 잣나무조림지의종다양성종다양성은해당지역환경의안정성과비례하므로 (Barbour et al., 1999) 효과적인생태학적평가도구로유용하게활용될수있다 (Magurran, 2004). 본연구에서종풍부도와다양성은 (Fig. 5) 조림후 8년생식분에서가장높은값을나타내었고, 경과년수가늘어남에따라종다양성은감소하였다. 8 년생식분의높은종다양성은조림과정에서발생한인위적간섭이식생이도입될수있는공간확보및유입광량을증가시킨데기인한결과로해석된다 (Halpern, 1989; Miller et al., 1995; Bhuju & Ohaswa, 1999). 그이후의종다양성감소는조림시임지정리를통해줄었던임상목본식물의맹아생장으로인한하층식생의피압에기인한결과로해석된다. 식분연령에따라종다양성은감소하는경향을보였지만조림지식분의종다양성이대조지소의것보다높았고, 대소지소에나타나지않았던외래종의유입은그비율이 2.2% 이하로매우낮게나타나 조림지식분의종다양성증가에는큰영향을미치지않았다. 4.4 복원생태학의원리에기초한잣나무조림지의평가조성후경과년수가다른잣나무조림지를대상으로종조성, 종다양성및외래종출현비율을대조구와비교 분석하였고, 천이경향을밝혔다. 종조성은일부유사한지소도있지만대부분의지소가차이를보였다 (Fig. 3). 이러한차이의배경을분석한결과, 잣나무조림지에서는물푸레나무와고로쇠나무의점유율이높은데서비롯된것으로밝혀졌다. 잣나무조림지는향후물푸레나무가우점하고고로쇠나무나피나무가큰비중을차지하는식생으로천이될것으로예측되었다 (Fig. 4). 이러한결과는참나무류우점식생으로의천이가예상되는아까시나무 (Lee et al., 2004), 리기다소나무 (Shin, 2005) 및일본잎갈나무 (Kim et al., 2013) 조림지의경우와차이를보이는것으로서주목된다. 그러한차이를주도하는물푸레나무는종자에날개를가져멀리그리고비교적쉽게산포될수있는특징을가진비내음성종으로서교란으로발생한숲틈에자주출현하는것으로알려져있다 (Oliver & Larson, 1990; Lee, 1995). 한편, 지속적인간섭을받은지역은외래종의침입에취약해지고 (McNeeley et al., 2001), 외래종의유리한생활사때문에그범위가점차확장된다 (Meffe et al., 1997). 잣나무조림지에는잣을얻기위한지속적인인위적간섭으로인해, 그비율은낮지만대조구에는전혀출현하지않는외래종이출현하였다 (Fig. 6). 이러한결과를통해서볼때, 잣나무조림지는우리나라의주요조림수종인리기다소나무, 아까시나무, 일본잎갈나무조림지에서일반적으로나타나는대조구와유사한종조성, 자생참나무류가우점하는식생으로의천이등 (Lee et al., 2004; Shin, 2005; Kim et al., 2013) 의복원효과 (SERI 2004) 가나타나지않았다. 이러한차이는다른조림지가
Kim et al : The Effects of Ecological Restoration Confirmed in the Pinus koraiensis Plantation. 27 과도한이용에의해황폐해진삼림을기능적으로복원하기위해시도된사방조림인반면에잣나무조림지는유용자원으로서잣을얻기위해조성되어지속적으로인위적간섭이이루어지는데서비롯된결과로해석되었다. Ⅴ. 감사의글 본연구는산림청 산림내유용식물및종다양성보전을위한생태적관리기법개발 ( 과제번호 : S121010L020100) 의지원에의하여이루어진것입니다.» Literature cited Barbour, M. T., Gerristen, J., Synder, B. D., and Stribling, J. B. 1999. Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Wadeable Rivers: Periphyton, Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Fish Second Edition. EPA 841-B-99-002. Berger, J. J. 1993. Ecological restoration and non indigenous plant species: A review. Restoration Ecology. 1(2): 74-82. Bhuju, D. R., and Ohsawa, M. 1999. Species dynamics and colonization patterns in an abandoned forest in an urban landscape. Ecol. Res. 14: 139 153. Bradshaw, A. D. 1984. Ecological principles and land reclamation practice. Landscape planning. 11(1): 35-48. Braun-Blanquet, J. 1964. Pflanzensoziologie. Grundzüge der Vegetationskunde. Springer-Verlag, New York. Brook, B. W., Sodhi, N. S., and Peter, K. L. Ng. 2003. Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature. 424: 420-426. Brower, J. E., and J. H. Zar. 1977. Field and laboratory method for general ecology. Wm. C. Brown Co, Dubuque, Iowa. Carrere, R., and Lohmann, L. 1996. Pulping the south: industrial tree plantations and the world paper economy. Zed Books Ltd, London. Cossalter, C., and Pye-Smith, C. 2003. Fast-wood forestry-myths and realities. Center for International Forestry ResearchBogor, Indonesia. FAO. 2006. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005-Progress towards sustainable forest management. ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/008. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO. 2007. The state of the World's Forests. ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009. FAO, Rome, Italy. Forest Stepwardship Council. 2007. FSC principles and criteria of forest stewardship. http://www.fsc.org/en/ about/policy_standards/princ_criteria. Gullison, R. E. 2003. Does forest certification conserve biodiversity?. Oryx. 37(2): 153-165. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3): 704-720. Kim, J. U., and B. S. Kil. 2000. The Mongolian Oak Forest in Korea (Environment, Vegetation and it s Life). Wonkang University press, Iksan. Kim, J. W. 2004. Phytosociological greenecology for Forest, Landscaping, Ecology, Environment. Worldscience, Seoul. Kim, S. M., J. H. An, Y. K. Lim, J. H. Pee, G. S. Kim, H. Y. Lee, Y. C. Cho, K. H. Bae, and C. S. Lee. 2013. The effects of ecological restoration confirmed in the Larix Kaempferi plantation. Korea Journal of Ecology and Environment (submitted). Korea Forest Service. 2000. Statistical yearbook of forestry. Korea Forest Service, Daejeon. Laurance, W. F. 2007. Have we overstated the tropical biodiversity crisis?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 22(2): 65-70. Lee, C. S. 1995. Disturbance and regeneration of the disturbed forest. In: M.M. Kim, J. H (ed.) Advanced Ecology. Gyomunsa, Seoul. Lee, C. S., H. J. Cho, and H. B. Yi. 2004. Stand dynamics of introduced black locust (Robinia
28 Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 47(5) pseudoacacia L.) plantation under different disturbance regimes in Korea. Forest Ecology and Management. 189: 281-293. Lee, C. S., Y. C. Cho, H. C. Shin, C. H. Lee, S. M. Lee, E. S. Seol, W. S. Oh, and S. A. Park. 2006. Ecological characteristics of Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora S. et Z.) forest on Mt. Nam as a Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) site. Journal of ecology and field biology 29(6): 593-602. Lee, C. S., A. N. Lee, and Y. C. Cho. 2008. Restoration Planning for the Seoul Metropolitan Area, Korea. In: M.M. Carreiro et al (eds.), Ecology, Planning, and Management of Urban Forests: International Perspectives. Springer, New York. pp. 393-419. Lee, T. B. 1996. Coloured flora of Korea. Hyangmunsa, Seoul. Lugo, A. E. 1997. Maintaining an open mind on exotic species. In: Meffe, G. k., Carroll, C. R. (Eds.), Principles of Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Pub., Sunderland, MA. pp. 245-247. Magurran, A. E. 2004. Measuring Biological Diversity. Blackwell, New York. McCune, B., and M. J. Mefford. 1999. PC-ORD. Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data, Version 4.20, MJM software Design, Glenden Beach, Oregon, USA. McNeeley J. A., Mooney H. A., Naville L. E., Schei P. J., and Waage J. K. 2001. Global strategy on invasive alien species. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, in collaboration with the Global Invasive Species Programme. Meffe G. K., Carroll C. R., and Pimm S. L. 1997. Community- and ecosystem-level conservation: species interactions, disturbance regime, and invading species. In: Meffe G. K., and Carroll C. R. (eds), Principles of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Pub., Sunderland, Massachusetts, pp. 236-267. Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. Findings of the condition and trends working group. In: Hassan R, Ash N (eds) Millenium ecosystem assessment series. Island Press, Washington. Miller, J. H., Zutter, B. R., Zedaker, S. M., Edwards, M. B., and Newbold, R. A. 1995. Early plant succession in loblolly pine plantations as affected by vegetation management. South J. App. For. 19: 109 126. Oliver, C. D., and B. C. Larson. 1990. Forest stand dynamics. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York. Palmer, M. A., D. A. Falk, and J. B. Zedler. 2006. Ecological theory and restoration. In: Falk, D. A., Palmer, M. A., Zedler, J. B. (Eds.), Foundations of Restoration Ecology. Island Press, Washington. pp. 1-11. Park, S. H. 1995. Coloured naturalized plants of Korea. Iljogak, Seoul. Park, S. H. 2001. Coloured naturalized plants of Korea : Possession. Iljogak, Seoul. Samcheok City Hall. 2009. www.samcheok.go.kr SERI(Society Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working Group). 2004. The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration. www.ser.org. Shannon, C. E. 1948. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal. 27: 379-423, 623-656. Shin, H. C. 2005. The effects of ecological restoration confirmed in the Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) plantation., MA Thesis, Seoul women s Univ., Seoul. Sonali, S. 2001. Vegetation composition and structure of Tectona Grandis (teak, Family Verbanaceae) plantation and dry deciduous forests in central India. For. Ecol. Management. 148: 159-167. Taebaek City Hall. 2009. www.taebaek.go.kr Wilson, E. O. 1988. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington. World Rainforest Movement. 2007. www.wrm.org.uy.