: * 1990,,.,.,. Sorensen(1989). -0.89%...,.,. 1990... 1990. 1990. 25 29., 30 60 1990.. * - 1 -
, M.,. 1990. 1990.,,.,.,. 1990 2000 69.7%. 61.9%.. 1980 44.2% 1990 53.5%, 1995 59.6%, 1998 63.7%. 1999 2000 63.3%, 2000 63.2%. 1990,.,..,. 1990., Sorensen(1989), (crowding hypothesis). 1990.,.... 1 2. Dickens and Lang(1985). - 2 -
,,.,... 1990. 1990.,,.,. 1990,., Silber Sorensen(1989)..,. 1993 9 2000 9.. 1 3....,. Johnson and Stafford(1998),,,. (neo- classical human capital - 3 -
model), (segmentation), (feminist or gender).(richard Anker, 2001), Becker (1971).,.,... (on- the-job training),. 1). (Thaler and Rosen, 1975) (preference system),,. 2) (pre- market),.,,. 3). (labor market segmentation theory),,,. Doeringer and Piore(1971) (dual labor market 1),,,. ( ). 2).. 3), Coate and Loury (1993a),. - 4 -
theory) 1 2. 1 (ration), 2 1. Standing(1989) static progressive', ILO(1972) formal informal'.. (crowding hypothesis).,.,.,. 4),.. 5), Phelps(1972) Arrow(1973). 6). ( ),,,,, ( ). stereotype' (precision of information)'. 'Stereotype' (, Coate and Loury, 1993b),,,,... (Aigner 4) Anker (2001) 5),,,.,,. 6).,. - 5 -
and Cain, 1977; Oettinger, 1996; Lundberg and Startz, 1983). Lundberg(1991),.,.. 7) ( ),.,..,,, ( ).. 8) (1994) 1982 1992 Duncan's Index. 77,.. (crowding hypothesis). (2001) 2,.. (2001) CPS(Current Population Survey) DOT (Dictionary of Occupational Titles).,... 7) Lundberg(1991) (affirmative action). 8) (1990), (1992), (1995), (2000). - 6 -
1.. 9) 1993 9 2000 9 8. 10), < - 1> 2000 9 77.0% 12 69.2% 15. 23.0%. 12 1993 9 44.5% 2000 9 49.5%. 70.4% 77.0%,. < - 1> 1993 9 2000 9 (12 ) (15 ) 0.287 0.704 0.445 0.713 0.296 0.555 0.308 0.770 0.495 0.691 0.230 0.505 : : 2000 9 1993 9. 1993,,. < 1> 1993, 1997, 2000 3 (= / ). 2000 9 11),, 12. 12),,. 9) ILO ISCO(International Standard Classification of Occupation) 1992 2000. 1993 2000.. 10) 9.. 11) 0.678. 12) 2000 9,,,,, - 7 -
1993, 1997 2000 3,, ( ).,,,,, (, 2000). 1993 2000 8,,.. Duncan(1955) (Index). Duncan, D = 1 2 n i = 1 F i F - M i M ( - 1) F i M i i, F M. 1980, Butler (1987), Silber (1989). Hutchens(1991). Silber(1989) ( - 2), F i / M i (weighted Gini Index). G S = 1 2 n i = 1 n j = 1 M i M M j M F i / M i - F j / M j F / M ( - 2) G S location ( - 3), = n i = 1 M i M F i M i = F / M ( - 3) Dispersion ( - 4). 13) 13) (Skewness) (kurtosis) Berrebi and Silber(1989). A G = 1 2 R - L, R L F i / M i F i / M i (weighted mean deviation). - 8 -
= 2 G s = n i = 1 n j = 1 M i M M j M F i M i - F j M j ( - 4) Duncan Silber 1993 2000 < - 2> < - 3>. < - 2> Duncan 1993 0.3722 1995 0.4135, 0.4020 0.4100. Silber. location 1993 0.6876 2000 0.7159.,. < - 2> : (1993 2000) Duncan Silber location dispersion 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 0.3722 0.3818 0.4135 0.4024 0.4094 0.4080 0.4000 0.4056 0.3548 0.3604 0.3803 0.3753 0.3907 0.3715 0.3752 0.3858 0.6876 0.6890 0.6896 0.6998 0.7042 0.6889 0.7041 0.7159 0.4880 0.4966 0.5245 0.5253 0.5502 0.5120 0.5283 0.5523 < - 3> : (1993 2000) Duncan Silber (location) dispersion 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 0.4418 0.4515 0.4747 0.4766 0.4608 0.4746 0.4558 0.4617 0.3718 0.3815 0.3939 0.4045 0.4050 0.3930 0.4015 0.4138 0.6127 0.6199 0.6216 0.6368 0.6434 0.6304 0.6599 0.6780 0.4556 0.4729 0.4897 0.5152 0.5212 0.4955 0.5299 0.5612. < - 2> 2000 9 K G = 1 2 R + L. - 9 -
Duncan 0.4056 < -3> Duncan 0.4617. 1993. 1993 9 0.6127 2000 9 0.6780. 2. 1990. 1990,,. < - 4> 2000 9. 63.7% 23.9%.. 20.2%,.. < - 4> : 2000 9 (12 ) (15 ) 0.307 0.667 0.202 0.528 0.239 0.637 :, 2000 9 < 2> 2000 9.. 15%., 90%. 1990. 1990. 77.0% 12. 1990. - 10 -
.,,.. 1. (Crowding Hypothesis). Bergmann(1974) (men's work). (overcrowding),.. Treiman and Hartmann(1981).,.. 14),,.(Ferber and Lowry, 1976; England et al., 1982; O'Neil, 1983; Aldrich and Buchele; 1986) Sorensen(1989) PSID 23%. Sorensen(1989). ( - 1). w i = 0 + 1F R i + 2Z i ( - 1) F R i i (= / ), Z i 14)...,,,. - 11 -
. 1 (- ). (- ) 1., ( - 1) 1m 1f. w im = 0 m + 1mF R im + 2mZ im w if = 0f + 1f F R if + 2f Z if ( - 2) ( - 2) (crowding effect). C f = 1f ( F m - F f ) / ( w m - w f ) C m = 1m ( F m - F f ) / ( w m - w f ) ( -3) w m - w f, F m - F f (female dominated jobs). C f C m. 2. Sorensen(1989), 2000 3. 15) 15, ( - 2) < - 1>. log,,,,,, (SK),,,,,,,,. 2000 9 (= / ). 10 15) (GK) 1 2. 1, 2 3 GK. - 12 -
16),,,. < - 1> log ( / ) ( ) (0: 1: ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (1: yes 0: no) (1: yes 0: no) (1: 0: ) (1: yes 0: no) 4.7836 0.6191 39.0323 1629.5768 0.7503 12.3039 5.8435 78.5434 14.4848 305.7312 0.2563 0.2103 0.1045 0.0658 0.0716 0.2787 0.8342 0.1916 5.4374 1.9587 0.0619 4.1966 1.4118 36.4456 1456.0983 0.5699 11.0513 3.3153 28.1522 8.4363 123.1967 0.2508 0.2113 0.1213 0.0649 0.0617 0.2678 0.7490 0.0847 4.8787 1.8504 0.0324 < - 1>,, (SK), (GK).,,,. 2000 75 5 (132 8 ) 56.8% 16) (1) 1 4, (2) 5 9, (3) 10 29, (4) 30 49, (5) 50 69, (6) 70 99, (7) 100 299, (8) 300 499, (9) 500 999, (10) 1,000 10. - 13 -
. 17). (skewness) (kurtosis) 1.4297 7.4814 1.8532 8.9381. < - 2> (= / ) ( ) (0: 1: ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (1: yes 0: no) (1: yes 0: no) (1: 0: ) F - (1: yes 0: no) Adjusted R- square 2.2981( 12.55) - 0.0262( - 2.50) 0.0463( 5.35) - 0.0006( - 6.37) 0.1609( 6.17) 0.0531( 15.60) 0.0233( 6.05) - 0.0004( - 3.12) 0.0152( 3.44) - 0.0003( - 2.78) - 0.0830( - 3.10) - 0.1791( - 5.42) - 0.1375( - 3.49) - 0.0854( - 2.25) - 0.0512( - 2.10) 0.1306( 4.87) - 0.0456( - 1.73) 0.0107( 3.25) 0.2918( 6.25) 0.0141( 0.36) 1,550 63.84 0.3521 2.2130( 10.96) 0.0394( 3.33) 0.0233( 2.38) - 0.0003( - 2.48) - 0.0441( - 1.19) 0.0373( 7.28) 0.0482( 6.26) - 0.0013( - 3.48) 0.0129( 2.27) - 0.0002( - 1.66) - 0.1304( - 3.32) - 0.1758( - 3.80) - 0.1585( - 2.70) - 0.1574( - 2.63) - 0.1210( - 3.31) 0.1936( 5.29) 0.0531( 1.03) 0.0125( 2.94) 0.4360( 10.29) 0.1220( 1.59) 956 34.51 0.4081 : 10%,, 10%. 17). 3 75 9, 129 1 58.8%. - 14 -
( - 2) < - 2>.. - 0.0262 0.0394. 18) ( -3) - 0.89%.. (SK) (GK),. (2000). 0.0531 0.0373..,,.,.. 19) Oaxaca, 2000 38.1% 61.9%. (2000), (1995) 20) 1990,. 21) 3.8%, 24.4%, 10.6%. 0.1%, - 0.89%.. 18)., Blau(1984), Filer(1989). Sorensen(19989). 19). 20) (1998). 21) Oaxaca.. - 15 -
..... Dickens and Lang(1985). Dickens and Lang(1985) switching regression with unknown regimes,. 22) 1 (primary) 2 (secondary), ( - 1). ln W i = X i p + ln W i = X i s + si ( - 1) ( - 2). y * i = Z i + w i ( - 2) W i, X i Z i, p, s,. p, s, w, (latent) y * i i 1. Dickens and Lang(1985) 1 2. 23) 22) (1992) 1989 Dickens and Lang(1985).. 23) Dickens and Lang(1985) (factor analysis) 1 2. sample selection bias. - 16 -
. ( - 2) y i (latent) 1 0. ( - 1) ( - 2) switching regression model with endogenous switching '. 24) (probit) < - 1>. 2000.. 25) < - 1>. < - 1> - Probit (1: 2: ) ( ) ( ) (1: yes 0: no) ( ) LR chi- square Log likelihood z- P> z 0.4373 1.75 0.080 0.6857 15.77 0.000-0.0326-2.33 0.020 0.0005 3.12 0.002-0.0751-12.51 0.000 0.1409 2.24 0.025-0.0154-2.37 0.018 0.0003 1.77 0.077 4,610 713.40-2816.5 < - 2> (OLS). 2 (two- stage estimation). - 0.3544.. 0.1709, - 0.4038 24) Lee(1978) - Trost (1977) housing- demand'. 25) 2000 9..,. - 17 -
. (self selection),. < - 2> OLS (1: 2: ) ( ) (0: 1: ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (1: yes 0: no) (1: yes 0: no) (1: 0: ) F - Adjusted R- square (OLS ) 2.8284( 20.16) - 0.3544(- 19.49) 0.0267( 4.36) - 0.0004( - 5.03) 0.0572( 2.59) 0.0466( 16.64) 0.0326( 9.13) - 0.0007( - 5.14) 0.0188( 5.63) - 0.0004( - 4.76) - 0.1013( - 4.43) - 0.1686( - 6.06) - 0.1441( - 4.25) - 0.1163( - 3.38) - 0.0761( - 3.60) 0.1545( 6.95) - 0.0177( - 0.72) * 0.0110( 4.18) 0.4234( 13.66) - 2440 163.81 0.5458 0.9537( 2.19) 0.1709( 1.68) 0.0148( 1.55) * - 0.0002( - 1.59) * 0.0666( 1.80) - 0.0023( - 0.24) * 0.0392( 5.76) - 0.0009( - 3.07) 0.0126( 2.41) - 0.0003( - 2.12) - 0.1097( - 2.96) - 0.1099( - 2.36) - 0.1553( - 2.69) - 0.1989( - 3.24) - 0.0545( - 1.53) * 0.1517( 4.43) 0.0167( 0.31) * 0.0071( 1.70) 0.5057( 11.19) - 3.4955( - 4.63) 998 56.22 0.5216 (2 ) 3.1766( 4.48) - 0.4038( - 3.55) 0.0195( 2.16) - 0.0003( - 2.26) 0.1011( 3.40) 0.0539( 4.63) 0.0262( 6.41) - 0.0007( - 4.23) 0.0193( 4.20) - 0.0003( - 2.98) - 0.1076( - 3.81) - 0.2060( - 6.15) - 0.1462( - 3.64) - 0.0829( - 2.07) - 0.0907( - 3.58) 0.1314( 4.55) - 0.0428( - 1.61) * 0.0162( 4.81) 0.2931( 6.83) 0.0051( 0.01) * 1442 84.51 0.5241 : * 10%. 1%. 'Self selection bias' - 3.4955 1%.. 0.0051 t- 0.01, - 18 -
(self- selection bias). (likelihood ratio test). log- 0.1804.., ( )... 1990,,.., 1990 3 9. 1990.,.,. 1990. 2000 9 20.2%.., Sorensen(1989). - 0.89%.,.,.,., - 19 -
. 1990.. 1990.,...,,.,..,.,.. 2000 9 77.0% 12... 2000 9 4.3% 3.4% 0.0%.. - 20 -
,, 29 (1995): 321-345,, (2000) :,, (1990) :, (1992),, 2 (1991): 41-88,, 15 (1992): 37-75,, (2001), : 1995-1998, (2000), : BPS, 7 (1996): 149-169,, 17 (1994. 12): 161-181, (1998) :, :, (2001) Aigner, Dennis J. and Glen G. Cain, "Statistical Theory of Discrimination in Labour Markets", Industrial and Labor R elations R eview (1977): 175-187 Aldrich, Mark and Robert Buchele, "The Economics of Comparable Worth" (1986) Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Anker, Richard, "Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An Overview", in M. F. Loutfi eds., Women, Gender and Work (2001) Geneva: ILO Arrow, Kenneth, "Models of Job Discrimination", in Anthony H. Pascal ed., Racial Discrimination in Economic Life (1972) Lexington: Lexington Books - 21 -
Becker, Gary S., "The Economics of Discrimination", (1971) Chicago: the University of Chicago Press. Bergmann, Barbara R., "Occupational Segregation, Wages and Profits When Employers Discriminate by Race and Sex", Eastern Economic J ournal 1 (1974): 103-110 Berrebi, Z. M. and J. Silber, "Dispersion, the Gini Index of Inequality and the Flatness of an Income Distribution", M athematical S ocial Sciences 18 (1989): 229-237. Blau, Francine D, "Occupational Segregation and Labor Market Discrimination", in Barbara F. Reskin ed., S ex Segregation in the Workp lace (1984) Washington D. C.: National Academy Press Boisso, Dale, Kathy Hayes, Joseph Hirschberg and Jacques Silber, "Occupational Segregation in the Multidimensional Case", J ournal of Econom etrics 61 (1994): 161-171 Bulow, Jeremy I. and Lawrence H. Summers, "A Theory of Dual Labor Markets with Application to Industrial Policy, Discrimation, and Keynesian Unemployment", Journal of Labor Economics 4 no. 3 (1986): 376-414 Butler, R. J., "New indices of segregation", Econom ic Letters 24 (1987): 359-362 Coate, Stephen and Glenn Loury, "Antidiscrimination Enforcement and the Problem of Patronization", A merican Econom ic R eview 83 (1993a): 92-98 Deutsch, Joseph, Yves Fluckiger and Jacques Silber, "Measuring Occupational Segregation", J ournal of Econometrics 61 (1994): 133-146. Dickens, W. T. and Kevin Lang, "A T est of Dual Labor Market Theory", the A merican Econom ic R eview 75 (1985): 792-805 Doeringer, Peter B. and Michael J. Piore, "Internal Labor Markets and Manpower Analysis" (1971) Lexington: Lexington Books Duncan, O. D. and B. Duncan, "A Methodological Analysis of Segregation Indices", A m erican S ociological R eview 20 (1955): 210-217. England, P., M. Chassie, and L. McCormack, "Skill Demands and Earnings in Female and Male Occupations", Sociology and Social R esearch 66 no. 2 (1982): 147-168 Ferber, M. A. and Helen M. Lowry, "The Sex Differential in Earnings: A Reappraisal", Industrial and Labor R elations R eview 29 no. 3 (1976): 377-387 Filer, Randall, "Occupational Segregation, Compensating Differentials and Comparable Work", in Robert Michael and Heidi Hartmann eds., Pay E quity: Emp irical Inquiries (1989) Washington D. C.: National Academy Press Huchens, R. M., Segregation Curves, Lorenz Curves and Inequality in the Distribution of People - 22 -
Across Occupations", Mathematical Social Science 21 (1991): 31-51 ILO, "Employment, incomes and inequality: A Strategy for Increasing Productive Employment in Kenya" (1972) Geneva Johnson, George E. and Frank P. Stafford, "Alternative approaches to occupational exclusion", in I. Persson and C. Jonung. eds., Wom en's work and wages (1998) London: Routledge Lee, L. F., "Unionism and Wage Rates: A Simultaneous Equation Model with Qualitative and Limited Dependent Variables", International Economic R eview 19 (1978): 415-433 O'Neil, June, "the Determinants and Wage Effects of Occupational Segregation", (1983) Washington D. C.: The Urban Institutes Phelps, Edmund S., "the Statistical Theory of Racism and Sexism", A merican Economic R eview 62 no.4 (1972): 659-661 Silber, J., "On the Measurement of Employment Segregation", Econom ics Letters 30 (1989): 237-243. Sorensen, Elaine, "The Crowding Hypothesis and Comparable Worth", the J ournal of H uman R esources 25 (1990): 55-89 Standing, Guy, "Global feminization through flexible labor", World Emp loyment Programme R esearch, Working Pap er No. 31 (1989) Geneva: ILO Thaler, R. and S. Rosen, "The Value of Saving a Life: Evidence from the Labor Market", in: N. T erleckyj, ed., H ousehold Production and Consump tion (1975) New York: NBER Treiman, Donald J. and Hei I. Hartmann, eds, "Women, Work and Wages: Equal Pay for Jobs of Equal Value", (1981) Washington D. C.: National Academy Press Trost, R. P., "Demand for Housing: A Medel Based on Inter- related Choices between Owning and Renting", Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation (1977) University of Florida - 23 -
< 1> ( / ) 1., 11. 12. 13. 2. 21.,, 22. 23. 24. 3. 31. 32. 33. 34. 4. 41. 42. 5. 51. 52., 6. 61. 62. 7. 71. 72., 73.,, 74. 8., 81. 82. 83. 9. 91. 92. 93.,, 1993 1997 2000 1993 1997 2000 0.000 0.029 0.059 0.084 0.943 0.687 0.337 0.234 2.415 3.413 0.200 0.481 3.945 1.989 0.946 0.931 0.618 0.041 0.063 0.523 1.539 0.073 0.730 0.005 1.273 3.456 0.637 0.000 0.015 0.060 0.059 0.840 0.927 0.352 0.156 2.699 3.052 0.243 0.674 4.909 2.287 1.033 0.966-0.042 0.055 0.280 1.668 0.016 0.453 0.006 1.130 3.664 0.782 0.000 0.050 0.060 0.104 1.115 1.124 0.319 0.140 2.052 3.954 0.185 0.671 4.127 2.250 1.042 0.937 0.509 0.040 0.033 0.361 1.536 0.019 0.410 0.015 1.062 2.390 1.072 0.000 0.034 0.029 0.092 1.847 0.686 0.382 0.229 3.857 3.382 0.198 0.454 3.894 2.340 0.942 0.220 0.000 0.042 0.063 0.671 1.833 0.069 0.740 0.004 1.492 3.511 0.618 0.000 0.016 0.011 0.052 1.937 0.836 0.376 0.156 3.857 3.948 0.266 0.623 4.669 3.043 1.194 0.590-0.050 0.055 0.300 1.985 0.017 0.466 0.006 1.205 3.423 0.768 0.000 0.043 0.034 0.111 2.369 1.075 0.309 0.133 3.106 4.482 0.200 0.614 3.862 2.866 1.339 0.761 0.000 0.039 0.028 0.425 1.811 0.013 0.419 0.015 1.082 2.456 1.056 0.688 0.704 0.716 0.613 0.643 0.678 :, - 24 -
< 2> : 2000 9 1., 11. 12. 13. 2. 21.,, 22. 23. 24. 3. 31. 32. 33. 34. 4. 41. 42. 5. 51. 52., 6. 61. 62. 7. 71. 72., 73.,, 74. 8., 81. 82. 83. 9. 91. 92. 93.,, 92.18 99.44 94.06 87.92 83.35 85.35 85.08 81.27 58.94 22.18 79.06 78.46 65.49 30.27 24.07 19.49 27.06 14.87 57.52 42.11 24.98 81.59 72.04 57.57 24.74 1.23 11.68 100.0 100.0 76.57 75.38 83.94 78.40 61.15 54.14 82.74 20.02 56.83 53.80 50.66 8.10 9.65 3.26-2.95 39.33 30.90 15.19 100.00 52.48 40.64 5.98 0.51 11.01 92.62 99.46 93.32 86.62 83.78 81.78 78.94 77.21 77.16 20.42 75.10 67.91 53.72 13.63 14.97 12.42 27.06 14.32 56.95 38.37 18.38 81.89 65.79 57.33 14.77 0.71 11.32 53.28 25.58 40.88 : - 25 -