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대한요로생식기감염학회지 : 제 7 권제 2 호 2012년 10월 Korean J UTII Vol. 7, No. 2, October 2012 종설 슈퍼버그 : Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus 와 Carbapenem 내성균 고려대학교의과대학비뇨기과학교실 채지윤 오미미 [Abstract] Superbug: Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus and Carbapenem Resistant Organisms Ji Yun Chae, Mi Mi Oh From the Department of Urology, Korea University, College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea The emergence of multi-drug resistant organisms, so-called superbugs, are a major public health concern. Multi-drug resistant organisms can cause serious, life-threatening infections. The acquisition of vancomycin resistance by Gram-positive bacteria and carbapenem resistance by Gram-negative bacteria made some hospital-acquired infections impossible to treat. Unless alternative treatment regimens are developed, our difficulty to treat totally resistant bacteria will halt other advances in modern medicine. Overuse of antibiotics and environmental factors all have a role in the emergence and spread of resistance. This article reviews the mechanisms and recent trends in the spread of multi-drug resistant bacteria, especially vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus and carbapenem-resistant organisms. (Korean J UTII 2012;7:99-105) Key Words: Drug resistance, Vancomycin, Carbapenems 서 론 세균의항생제에대한내성은병원내감염이증 교신저자 : 오미미, 고려대학교의과대학비뇨기고학교실서울구로구구로동 148 우 152-703 Tel: 02-2626-1320, Fax: 02-2626-1321 E-mail: mamah77@paran.com Received: September 11, 2012 Revised: September 13, 2012 Accepted: September 27, 2012 99 가함에따라광범위항생제의사용이늘어나면서점차증가하여전세계적으로문제가되고있다. 1 특히나한국은다른산업화국가들보다불필요한바이러스감염에의남용등항생제처방률이높고아직감염관리에대한인식이부족한의료기관들이많기때문에국내내성균의종류와빈도가증가하는현상은더욱심각하다고할수있다. 그외새로운종류의항생제개발과승인의부족또한이러한항생제저항성시대를맞게된중요한배경으로생각이된다. 한편최근, 슈퍼박테리아 ( 다제내

100 대한요로생식기감염학회지 : 제 7 권제 2 호 2012 년 10 월 성균 ), 이른바 슈퍼버그 가출몰하면서어떤항생제로도치료가불가능한슈퍼버그감염의시대가다가오고있다. 이들은항생제중최후의보루라고알려진 carbapenem에까지도내성을보이기때문에전세계적으로매우심각한보건위기를초래할것으로생각된다. 이에저자는슈퍼버그중 vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), carbapenem 내성균의국내외감염현황및이의치료, 극복방안에대하여알아보고자한다. 본론 1. Superbug 슈퍼버그, 혹은슈퍼박테리아란현존하는어떤항생제에도내성을보이는초강력박테리아를말하며다제내성균을뜻하는잘못된표현이다. 이에는 super-toxicity, super-resistance의의미가포함되어있으며현재 Staphylococci, Enterococci, Gonococci, Streptococci, Salmonella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis 등여러종류의세균이다제내성을갖고있는것으로알려져있다. 2 이들은주로면역저하환자들의혈액을통해위와폐, 요도등의장기를동시다발로감염, 최악의경우사망에이르게할수있다. Superbug라는용어가처음쓰이게된건영국에서 NDM-1이라고하는유전자가발견되면서부터다. NDM-1은 carbapenemase라고불리는 β-lactamase 효소를코드화하는유전자의한종류로서광범위한 β-lactam 항생제및 carbapenem 계열에내성을갖게하는효소를합성한다. 이는 2008년인도뉴델리에서 Klebsiella pneumoniae 감염으로입원한환자에서처음발견되어명명되었고이후인도, 파키스탄에서성형수술후돌아온사람들을통해영국, 방글라데시, 미국, 일본등전세계적으로확산되었다. 국내에서는 2010년 12월첫감염자가보고되었으며, 최근해외여행경험이없는장기입원환자로서 carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) 감염자로나타났다. 이에우리나라에서는 2011년 9월 NDM-1을포함하는 CRE를법정전염병으로고시하였다. 신종슈퍼박테리아가국경을넘어서전파된데에는 의료관광 ' 이그원인으로지목되고있다. 인도의값싼의료비와짧은대기시간으로인해세계각지에서의료혜택을위해사람들이모이고영국에서신종슈퍼박테리아에감염된사람들또한대부분이인도에서의료서비스를받은것으로밝혀져그가능성이높게점쳐지고있다. 3,4 그외산업화의가속화및음식물을통한내성의전달등도그요인으로생각해볼수있다. 특히동물들의질병관리와성장촉진을위해동물사료에남용되는항생제가분변을통해먹이사슬로순환하여인체에독성을나타낼수있는것으로밝혀졌다. 5-7 2. 항생제내성의경향최근항생제내성의전반적인경향을보면 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) 가원내및원외에만연해있으며 vancomycin intermedate Staphylococcus aureus (VISA), vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) 와같이 glycopeptides에감수성이덜한 Staphylococcus aureus가등장했다. 또한다약제에대한내성을갖는 multi-drug resistance (MDR) 가문제가되고있는데그람양성균으로는 Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, 그람음성균에서는 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter species가대표적이라고할수있다. 5 그외 β -lactamase에대해저항성을갖는 Enterobacteriaceae로 extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) 외에도 metalloβ-lactamase (MBL), Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) 를들수있다. 미국에서는 Helen W. 등 8 이최근의항생제내성과관련해중요하게다루어야할 pathogen들을 Eneterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumanii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter species의앞글자를따 ESKAPE 라고하며, 문제가되는이들다제내성균들의치료법을개발하여항생제내성의확산을막아야한다고이야기하였다. 우리나라의경우 2009년기준 OECD 국가중항생제사용률이 1,000명당 31.4명 (1일기준 ) 으로 OECD 국가중 1위였으며 2010년사용량도 27.9명

채지윤외 : 슈퍼버그 : Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus 와 Carbapenem 내성균 101 으로 OECD 평균 21.1명보다훨씬높았다. 또한국내박테리아의내성률은 50-70% 정도로일본의 5% 미만과비교해열배가량높은것으로보고되고있다. 이러한높은항생제사용률및내성률외에도현재우리나라에서는다제내성균에대한적절한진단이나치료지침이마련되어있지않아문제가되고있는실정이다. 3. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) Enterococcus란인체장내에공생하는균주로서 Staphylococcus aureus보다독성은약하지만, 생명을위협하는치명적인감염을유발하는것으로알려져있다. VRE는 linezolid나 synercid의도입이전에는현존하는모든항생제에내성을보이던첫번째내성균주이다. 미국중환자실에서는 Pseudomonas 가다음두번째로흔히발견되는균주로서균주간유전물질의이동으로전이가가능하다. 9,10 VRE 감염의위험인자로서는이전의경구용 vancomycin이나, 광범위항균작용을갖는세파계열, metronidazole 등의항생제투여나, 환경오염등을들수있다. 10 VRE의경우, 플라스미드를포함하는유전물질들 (vana, vanb) 의획득으로세포벽전구물질의구조가변화되고이에따라 glycopeptide에결합하지못하게되어내성을획득하는것으로알려져있다. 9 VRE의감염률은지속적으로증가추세에있으며 tomycin, linezolid, quinupristin-dalfopristin, tigecycline 등이있으며, 이들중 linezolid와 quinupristin-dalfopristin만 FDA 승인을받았다. 14 Linezolid의경우박테리아리보솜의단백질합성을방해하여작용하며특히나 VRE에의한뇌수막염이나중추신경계감염에좋은일차약제로여겨지고있다. 15-17 FDA 승인은받지못하였으나 daptomycin과 tigecycline 등은임상시험에서그효과를나타냈다. Daptomycin은그람양성균에의한피부감염에대해서는 FDA 승인을받은 lipopeptide 제제로서표준일회용량 (6 mg/kg) 에저항을나타내는경우더고농도 (12 mg/kg까지 ) 로사용을하거나다른약제 (rifampin, fosfomycin, gentamicin) 와의병합을하는것이도움이된다는보고가있었다. 18,19 Tigecycline 또한 vancomycin에감수성이있는 Enterococcus faecalis 등의균주에의한피부및연부조직감염에는 FDA 승인을받은제제이다. 이는혈장농도가낮게유지되므로심한감염에서단독으로사용되는것은권장되지않고, vancomycin이나 gentamicin, doxycycline, rifampin 등과병합할때상승효과가있는것으로나타났다. 20-22 VRE에의한심내막염이나심한감염의경우에는 β-lactam 계열항생제에감수성이있는지여부와 aminoglycoside에고도의내성을보이는지에따라 ampicillin과 daptomycin, aminoglycoside 중두가지의병합요법으로치료할수있다. 14,23,24 이중 Enterococcus faecium에서는 80% 까지도보고가되고있고, Enterococcus faecalis에서는 6.9% 정도인것으로나타났다. 5,11 또한 17세이하의소아환자보다는성인이나노인에서, 외래환자보다는입원환자, 일반병실환자보다는중환자실환자에서, 그리고혈액이나소변검체보다는피부, 상처에서이들 VRE의감염률이높은것으로드러났다. 12,13 현재분리되는 Enterococcus faecium의대부분은 ampicillin이나 vancomycin, aminoglycosides에내성이있는것으로밝혀진다. VRE에의한감염에서치료로고려할수있는약제들에는 β-lactam 계열항생제와 aminoglycoside의병합, glycopeptide 계열, dap- 4. Carbapenem-resistant organisms Extended spectrum β-lactamase의출현으로인해 carbapenem이주치료약제로쓰이게되었으며이에따라 carbapenem에대해내성을획득한균주들은주요한그람음성내성균으로부상하게되었다. 25 Carbapenem 내성균으로는 Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa와 Acinetobacter baumannii가대표적이다. Canada의 2012년자료에의하면 carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae를균주에따라분류했을때, 64명에서분리된 73균주중 Klebsiella pneumoniae가 48, Escherichia coli가 12로대부분을차지했으며동정된곳은소변검체가 31, 직장도말

102 대한요로생식기감염학회지 : 제 7 권제 2 호 2012 년 10 월 이 24로대부분이었다. 25,26 우리나라에도 44개의병원을대상으로조사한결과 Acinetobacter baumannii 와 Pseudomonas aeruginosa의 imipenem에대한내성률은지속적으로증가추세에있으며, 특히 2007 년이후급격히증가하였다. Carbapenem에대한내성은 β-lactamase에의한효소의불활성화, 항생제결합단백의변화를통한항생제표적의구조변화, 그리고세포벽투과성이나배출펌프의변화를통해항생제가표적에접근하지못하도록하는기전들중하나또는그이상의기전이작용하여획득되는것으로알려져있다. 27 Carbapenem 내성균감염의위험인자로는이전의 fluoroquinolone이나 extended-spectrum cephalosporin의사용을들수있으며장기입원또한위험인자로서작용할가능성이있다. 25 Carbapenemase를형성하는균은 1993년처음발견되어보고되었다. 28 획득성 carbapenemase의대부분은잘알려진 4개의 β-lactamase 군분류중 Ambler class B (metallo-β-lactamases; MBLs), Ambler class A, and Amblerclass D (oxacillinases; OXAs) 에속한다. Class A에속하는 KPC는전형적인 ESBL이 carbapenem까지확장된것이며 GES type이있다. 25 Metallo β-lactamase는 class B에속하며 clavulanic acid, tazobactam과같은 β-lactamase 억제제에의해서도활성이저해되지않는것이특징이고, 분류로는 IMP, VIM families 등이있다. 29-31 Oxacillinase는 class D로, 이는 penicillin보다 oxacillin을더빠르게분해하는특성때문에붙여진이름이다. 현재 121종의class D 형 β-lactamase가발견되었으며이중 45종은 carbapenem 분해능력을갖는것으로밝혀졌다. 32,33 이들은염기서열분석비교를통해 8개의군으로나눌수있으며 4개의군 (OXA-23, 24/40, 58) 이임상환자에서분리된 Acinetobacter baumannii에서발견, OXA-48은 Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli 등에서발견되었다. 34 Carbapenemase 생성균주들은대개 penicillin, cephalosporin에도내성을가지며종종 aminoglycoside와 quinolone에도내성을보인다. 따라서이들다제내성균들의치료로는 tigecycline (Pseudomonas species 제외 ) 과 colistin 외에는뚜렷이효과있는약 제가없는것으로알려져있다. 35 다만, KPC에있어서는 doripenem과 ertapenem을병합한 double-carbapenem therapy가효과를나타낸다는보고도있었다. 36 Tigecycline은 glycylcycline 계열의대표약제이며리보솜내로의 transfer RNA의융합을막아단백질합성을억제함으로써작용한다. 20 Tigecycline은 Acinetobacter baumannii에는효과적이나 Pseudomonas aeruginosa나 Proteus species에는효과가없으며, 혈장농도가낮기때문에패혈증등심각한경우에는쓰이지않는다. 한편 colistin은 1950년대에개발된약제로서, 신독성과신경독성으로인해오랜기간사용이금지되었다가최근 carbapenem 내성균들이등장하면서다시사용되고있다. 그러나 colistin의부작용을줄이면서최고의효과를낼수있는적절한용량이나투여기간에대한충분한자료가아직부족한실정이다. 37 이렇듯유일하게다제내성균의치료에쓰이는약제들인 colistin과 tigecycline에도내성을보이는 Acinetobacter baumannii 균주가발견되어큰문제로대두되었으며, 올해우리나라에서발표한논문에따르면여러항생제들의병합요법 (imipenem+colistin, imipenem+ampicillin+ sulbactam, colistin+rifampicin, colistin+tigecycline, tigecycline+rifampicin) 이이런경우효과가있는것으로나타났다. 38 5. 항생제내성의파급효과항생제내성이사회에미치는주요한영향으로는사망률과이환률의증가를들수있으며재원기간이나감염관련합병증들이증가하게된다. 그예로 MRSA 감염의경우치사율이 2배, 재원기간이 1.29배증가한다는연구결과가있었으며마찬가지로 carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 감염의경우재원기간을 20일대 34일로증가시킨다는보고가있다. 9 항생제내성의또다른영향으로는여러비용관련한측면을들수있다. 이는환자뿐아니라병원이나사회에도해당이되는것으로재원기간이나중환자실, 격리실에서의치료기간증가, 비싼가격의항생제사용증가, 혈청검사등검사관련비용증가, 감염관리기구 ( 비누, 글

채지윤외 : 슈퍼버그 : Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus 와 Carbapenem 내성균 103 러브, 가운 ) 등의사용증가와연관이있다. 14 그리스나이스라엘등의예를보면 carbapenemase 형성내성균들의전염이나교차감염에대한치료법이나감염관리정책의미흡함이드러나고있으며, 이가의료보험제도에큰위협이되고있음을알수있다. 39-40 따라서비록번거롭고, 많은비용이들더라도이들균의검출을위한적절한감시체계를구축하는것이중요하게여겨지고있다. 결론항생제내성률은시간에따라증가하고있으며특히나원내, 면역저하환자들을위주로하여심각한사회적문제로대두되고있다. 모든항생제에내성을가진슈퍼박테리아의출몰과증가로머지않은미래에인류의생존이위협받는다고해도과언이아니다. 이에반해새롭고혁신적인항생제의발명은정체되고있는실정이며, 따라서항생제내성의근절을위해감염예방정책의확립및전략의강화가필요하다. 이는백신의개발을통해서도이루어질수있으며, 항생제처방의기준을좀더엄격하게제한하여적절하고꼭필요한순간에항생제를처방하도록하는것, 그리고기존의항생제와는차별화되는신약의개발, 타당한감시체계의구축등이도움이될수있다. REFERENCES 1. Hawkey PM, Jones AM. The changing epidemiology of resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 64:3-10 2. Petrosillo N, Capone A, Di Bella S, Taglietti F. Management of antibiotic resistance in the intensive care unit setting. Expert Rev Anti Infect 2010;8(3):289-302 3. Klugman KP. The successful clone: the vector of dissemination of resistance in streptococcus pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002;50 (Suppl S2):1-5 4. Albrich WC, Monnet DL, Harbarth S. Antibiotic selection pressure and resistance in streptococcus pneumoniae and streptococcus pyogenes. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10(3):514-7 5. Pillar C, Sahm D. Resistance trends and susceptibility profiles in the US among prevalent clinical pathogens: lessons from surveillance. Antibiotic Discovery and Development 2012:pp753-92 6. Kehrenberg C, Cuny C, Strommenger B, Schwarz S, Witte W. Methicillin-resistant and -susceptible staphylococcus aureus strains of clonal lineages ST398 and ST9 from swine carry the multidrug resistance gene cfr. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009;53:779-81 7. Garcia-Fernandez A, Chiaretto G, Bertini A, Villa L, Fortini D, Ricci A, et al. Multilocus sequence typing of IncI1 plasmids carrying extendedspectrum β-lactamases in Escherichia coli and Salmonella of human and animal origin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008;61(6):1229-33 8. Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Bradley JS, Edwards JE, Gilbert D, Rice LB, et al. Bad bugs, no drugs: no ESKAPE! an update from the infectious diseases society of america. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48(1):1-12 9. Mulvey MR, Simor AE. Antimicrobial resistance in hospitals: how concerned should we be? CMAJ 2009;180(4):408-15 10. Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J, Horan TC, Sievert DM, Pollock DA, et al. NHSN annual update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: annual summary of data reported to the national healthcare safety network at the centers for disease control and prevention, 2006-2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29(11):996-1011 11. Brown DF, Hope R, Livermore DM, Brick G, Broughton K, George RC, et al. Non-susceptibility trends among enterococci and non-pneumococcal streptococci from bacteraemias in the UK and Ireland, 2001-06. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 62(Suppl 2):ii75-85 12. Walsh FM, Amyes SG. Microbiology and drug

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