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1 Research Article Korean J Child Stud 2018;39(3): pissn: eissn: X The Development of Young Children s Understanding of Intentionality of Teaching and Theory of Mind, and its Relation to Their Understanding of Teaching Intention of an Actual Teaching Activity Jeein Jeong Interdisciplinary Studies in Human Development, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States,, Objective: The current study intends to examine how young children understand intentionality of teaching with the theory of mind development, and how this understanding relates to their understanding of a teaching intention of an actual teaching activity. Methods: The theory of mind of 90 children aged 3-5 years and their understanding of intentionality of teaching were assessed. Additionally, children were randomly assigned to experimental condition in which the teaching intention of an activity (memory game) was explicitly revealed, or control condition in which the intention was not stated. Afterwards, their understanding of the teaching intention of the game was measured. The development of understanding of intentionality of teaching, and its relation to their theory of mind were examined. Whether age and understanding of intentionality of teaching predicted children s understanding of the teaching intention of the game was also investigated. Results: Along with the theory of mind development, children s understanding of intentionality of teaching also developed. Children s understanding of teaching intention of the game was related to their understanding of intentionality of teaching with age controlled. Children s recognition of the teaching intention of the game was predicted by understanding of the intentionality of teaching in the control condition, and it was predicted by both age and understanding of intentionality of teaching in the experimental condition. Conclusion: With the development of theory of mind, children come to understand that teaching involves a goal, and this development plays an important role in their appreciation of an actual teaching intention of the activity. Keywords: intentionality of teaching, theory of mind, understanding of teaching intention of activity Corresponding Author: Jeein Jeong, Interdisciplinary Studies in Human Development, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Walnut Street., Philadelphia, PA , United States jeongjee@gse.upenn.edu The Korean Association of Child Studies This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

2 Jeein Jeong 20., (teaching), (Skerry, Lambert, Powell, & Mcauliffe, 2013; Strauss, Ziv & Stein, 2002)..,.,.,.??,?,.,,. (Davis-Unger & Carlson, 2008; Strauss et al., 2002; Ziv & Frye, 2004; Ziv, Solomon, & Frye, 2008).,, (Olson & Bruner, 1996).,,.,,.., (Frye & Ziv, 2005; Kruger & Tomasello, 1996; Ziv et al., 2008).,.,,.. (Ziv et al., 2008).,,., (imitation)...,.,, (Ziv et al., 2008).,.,.,., (Cavadel & Frye, 2017; Ziv et al., 2008; Ziv, Solomon, Strauss, & Frye, 2016)., 3, 4 (Cavadel & Frye, 2017; Ziv et al., 2008)., 3, 4,,., 5,,. 5

3 21 Young Children's Understanding of Intention of Teaching ( )..,, (Frye & Ziv, 2005).,,. (Oh, 2013; Chung, 2009), (Song, 2004; N. Shin & Kim, 2016), (Park, 2006; E.-S. Shin, 2005)., (Oh, 2013), (Chung, 2009)., (E.-S. Shin, 2005).,. H. Lee (2011) Yoon Kim (2012) Ziv (2008),,.,, 5 (H. Lee, 2011).,, (Yoon & Kim, 2012). 3 5,.,, (Flavell, 2004),,.,,., (Cavadel & Frye, 2017; Ziv & Frye, 2004).,,.,,.??.,,,, (Frye & Ziv, 2005),. 1? 2? 3,,,? 3-1.? 3-2.,

4 Jeein Jeong 22? 연구대상. 8, ( 13, 15, , M = 3.65, SD =.18), 4 28 ( 13, 15, , M = 4.62, SD =.24), 5 34 ( 15, 19, M = 5.50, SD =.27). 연구도구,,.,. 교수의도성이해수준 Ziv (2008) Yoon Kim (2008). 12, 2, ,,,,., 8 ( ) ( ),,,,, 2( ) 4( ) 8 (,,,,,,, )., ( :?? ). 1., , ( ) ( ), ( :??? ). 1, 마음이론 Gopnik Astington (1988)., ( : ), ( : ), ( :, )

5 23 Young Children's Understanding of Intention of Teaching ( :, ) 1.,,, 0-2. 실제교수활동의교수의도이해.,,..,. ( :.. )., ( :?,? )..,,..?.,,.... ( :??? ). ( ) 1, 0. 연구절차 IRB,.,., 2 20.,,,. ( :??? ),. 자료분석 SPSS 22.0 (IBM Co., Armonk, NY). (10 ), (ANOVA).., ( ), Pearson Spearman.,. 유아들의교수의도성이해수준

6 Jeein Jeong 24 Table 1 Understanding of Intentionality of Teaching by Age 3-year-olds 4-year-olds 5-year-olds Successful teaching.68 (SD =.48).96 (SD =.19) 1.00 (SD =.00) Unknown outcome teaching.61 (SD =.50).82 (SD =.39).97 (SD =.18) Partially successful teaching.64 (SD =.49).86 (SD =.36).97 (SD =.18) Failed teaching.50 (SD =.51).89 (SD =.32).97 (SD =.18) Total understanding of teaching stories 2.43 (1.37) a 3.54 (.79) b 3.90 (.30) b F = 20.30***, a < b Successful imitation.64 (SD =.49).68 (SD =.48).84 (SD =.37) Unknown outcome imitation.71 (SD =.46).71 (SD =.46).81 (SD =.40) Partially successful imitation.82 (SD =.39).82 (SD =.39).77 (SD =.43) Failed imitation.75 (SD =.44).82 (SD =.39).81 (SD =.40) Total understanding of imitation stories 2.93 (1.30) a 3.04 (1.37) a 3.23 (1.31) a F =.38 Hidden intention game.71 (SD =.46).82 (SD =.39).87 (SD =.34) χ2 = 2.29 Hidden intention question.36 (SD =.49).61 (SD =.50).65 (SD =.49) χ2 = 5.46 Total understanding of intentionality of teaching 6.43 (1.97) a 8.00 (1.72) b 8.65 (1.50) b F = 12.57***, a < b Note. N = 90 (28 3-year-olds, 28 4-year-olds, 34 5-year-olds). Scheffé s contrasts were significant at the.001 level. ***p <.001. (ANOVA), (F = 12.57, p <.001). Table 1, Scheffé, 4 (M = 8.00) 5 (M = 8.65) 3 (M = 6.43).,,. 3 4, 4 5.., (F = 20.30, p <.001). Scheffé, 3 (M = 2.43) 4 (M = 3.54) 5 (M = 3.90), 4 5.,. 3 4,..,., 5 ( ). (50%), 3,,,. 4. 5

7 25 Young Children's Understanding of Intention of Teaching Table 2 Correlations Between Theory of Mind and Understanding of Intentionality of Teaching Understanding of intentionality of teaching Representational change False belief Appearance-reality distinction Teaching stories.47** (.29**).43** (.20).17 (.00) Imitation stories.25* (.22*) -.04 (-.12).04 (.00) Hidden intention game -.03 (-.10).17 (.12).01 (-.03) Hidden intention question.16 (.06).22* (.12).17 (.102) Total understanding of intentionality of teaching.47** (.32**).31** (.08).17 (.02) Note. N = 90. Coefficients in parentheses are age-controlled correlations. *p <.05. **p <.01.. 교수의도성이해와마음이론의관계 Pearson (Table 2). (r =.47, p <.01), (r =.25, p <.05), (r =.47, p <.01), ( r =.29, p <.01; r =.22, p <.05; r =.32, p <.01).,., (r =.43, p <.01), (r =.22, p <.01), (r =.31, p <.01),.,,. 실제교수활동의교수의도에대한이해와다른변인간의관계 게임의교수의도에대한이해와마음이론, 교수의도성이해의관계, Spearman (Table 3).,,., (r =.29, p <.01), (r =.22, p <.01), (r =.35, p <.01)., (r =.32, p <.01), (r =.32, p <.01). (r =.30, p <.01), (r =.26, p <.05), (r =.36, p <.01)., ( r =.23, p <.05; r =.25, p <.05).,,,., (r =.23, p <.05),.,,.,

8 Jeein Jeong 26 Table 3 Correlations Among Understanding of the Intention of the Memory Game, Understanding of Intentionality of Teaching, and Theory of Mind Understanding of intentionality of teaching Expectation of the intention of the game Teaching stories.18 (.05) Imitation stories.29** (.32**) Hidden intention game.10 (.08) Hidden intention question.22* (.21) Total understanding of intentionality of teaching.35** (.32**) Theory of mind Representational change.20 (.12) False belief.14 (.09) Appearance-reality distinction.18 (.15) Total theory of mind.23* (.10) Note. Coefficients in parentheses are age-controlled correlations. *p <.05. **p <.01. Recognition of the intention of the game.30** (.12).21 (.15).26* (.23*).12 (.09).36** (.25*).05 (-.10).17 (.08).13 (.03).15 (.03) Table 4 Models Predicting Understanding of the Intention of the Memory Game Variable B Wald χ2 OR Control group Age Understanding of intentionality of teaching.42* Model χ2 6.52* Nagelkerke R2.144 Experimental group Age.84* *p <.05. Understanding of intentionality of teaching.31* Model χ * Nagelkerke R 통제, 실험집단에서의게임의교수의도에대한인식, 교수의도성이해수준, 연령의관계 (Table 4)..,.,, (B =.42, p <.05, OR = 1.52).,

9 27 Young Children's Understanding of Intention of Teaching,.., (B =.84, p <.05, OR = 2.32) (B =.31, p <.05, OR = 1.36).,,.,, ( ).,..,..,,,,.,. (Ziv et al., 2008; 2016), Head start (Cavadel & Frye, 2017), (Yoon & Kim, 2012).. Ziv (2008) 4 5, 3 4. Head Start (Cavadel & Frye, 2017),, 4 5., 3 4, 4 5. Yoon Kim (2012). Ziv (2008) , 8.,.,,,, (K. S. Lee, Chang, Chung, & Hong, 2002; Kim & Ohm, 2007),.,. (implicit), (Jeong & Frye, 2018). 3, (Behne, Carpenter, Call, & Tomasello, 2005; Meltzoff, 1995) (Baldwin, 1991, 1993)., 16-19, (Baldwin, 1991, 1993).. Moses (2001),,

10 Jeein Jeong 28, (motivational aspect)., (desire),.,.,,... (Olson & Bruner, 1996), (Davis-Unger & Carlson, 2008; Strauss et al., 2002; Ziv & Frye, 2004; Ziv et al., 2008).,,., (Gopnik & Astington, 1988).,, ,..,.,.,,.,..,???., (Olson & Bruner, 1996),,..,. (Baumwell, Tamis- LeMonda, & Bornstein, 1997; B.-J. Lee, Kim, & Kim, 2010),.,.

11 29 Young Children's Understanding of Intention of Teaching.. (Chung, 2009; Oh, 2013), (Song, 2004; N. Shin & Kim, 2016), (Park, 2006; E.-S. Shin, 2005).,.,. (Cavadel & Frye, 2017; Ziv et al., 2008)., (Cavadel & Frye, 2017). 1.,,.,..,,.,,.,.,.,..,,,.,,., (Strauss et al., 2002).,.,. Conflict of Interest No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported. In English References Baldwin, D. A. (1991). Infants contribution to the achievement of joint reference. Child Development, 62(5), doi: / Baldwin, D. A. (1993). Early referential understanding: Infants ability to recognize referential acts for what they are. Developmental Psychology, 29(5), doi: / Baumwell, L., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Bornstein, M. H. (1997). Maternal verbal sensitivity and child language comprehension. Infant Behavior and Development, 20(2), doi: /s (97) Behne, T., Carpenter, M., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2005). Unwilling versus unable: Infants understanding of intentional action. Developmental Psychology, 41(2), doi: / Cavadel, E. W., & Frye, D. A. (2017). Not just numeracy and literacy: Theory of mind development and school readiness among low-income children. Developmental Psychology, 53(12), doi: /dev

12 Jeein Jeong 30 Davis-Unger, A. C., & Carlson, S. M. (2008). Development of teaching skills and relations to theory of mind in preschoolers. Journal of Cognition and Development, 9(1), doi: / Flavell, J. H. (2004). Theory-of-mind development: Retrospect and prospect. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50(3), doi: /mpq Frye, D., & Ziv, M. (2005). Teaching and learning as intentional activities. In B. D. Homer & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), The development of social cognition and communication (pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59(1), doi: / Jeong, J., & Frye, D. (2018). Explicit versus implicit understanding of teaching: Does knowing what teaching is help children to learn from it? Teaching and Teacher Education, 71, doi: /j.tate Meltzoff, A. N. (1995). Understanding the intentions of others: Re-enactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 31(5), doi: / Moses, L. J. (2001). Some thoughts on ascribing complex intentional concepts to young children. In B. F. Malle, L. J. Moses, & D. A. Baldwin (Eds.), Intentions and intentionality: Foundations of social cognition (pp ). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Olson, D. R., & Bruner, J. (1996). Folk psychology and folk pedagogy. In D. R. Olson & N. Torrance (Eds.), Handbook of education and human development (pp. 9-27). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Skerry, A. E., Lambert, E., Powell, L. J., & McAuliffe, K. (2013). The origins of pedagogy: Developmental and evolutionary perspectives. Evolutionary Psychology, 11(3), doi: / Strauss, S., Ziv, M., & Stein, A. (2002). Teaching as a natural cognition and its relation to preschoolers developing theory of mind. Cognitive Development, 17(3-4), doi: /s (02) Kruger, A., & Tomasello, M. (1996). Cultural learning and learning culture. In D. Olson, & N. Torrance (Eds.). The handbook of education and human development: New models of teaching, learning, and schooling (pp ). Oxford: Blackwell. Ziv, M., & Frye, D. (2004). Children s understanding of teaching: The role of knowledge and belief. Cognitive Development, 19(4), doi: /j.cogdev Ziv, M., Solomon, A., & Frye, D. (2008). Young children s recognition of the intentionality of teaching. Child Development, 79(5), doi: /j x Ziv, M., Solomon, A., Strauss, S., & Frye, D. (2016). Relations Between the development of teaching and theory of mind in early childhood. Journal of Cognition and Development, 17(2), doi: / In Korean Chung, D.-H. (2009). Theory of mind and social relationships of 4 or 5 Year-Old Children. Early Childhood Education Research & Review, 13(3), Kim, B. R., & Ohm, J. A. (2007). Relationship between the actual state of extra curricula education for kindergarteners and maternal beliefs regarding child rearing. Family and Environment Research, 45(8), Oh, S.-Y. (2013). The relationship between young children s development of theory of mind and their adjustment in early childhood education institutions. Journal of Children s Literature and Education, 14(4), Park, S. (2006). Children s theory of mind and play script in social pretend play. Korean Journal of Early Childhood Education, 26(5), Song, Y.-J. (2004). Children s theory of mind : Story constructions compared with social behavior explanations, Korean Journal of Child Studies, 25(4), Shin, E.-S. (2005). Relationships among theory of mind, decontexutlization in pretend play, language, executive function, and central coherence in young children. Korean Journal of Early Childhood Education, 25(1), Shin, N., & Kim, S. (2016). Relations between mothers and Preschoolers use of mental state terms during pretend play and preschoolers mental state terms in hypothetical narratives. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 37(2), doi: / kjcs Lee, B.-J., Kim, N.-H., & Kim, H.-M. (2010). The effect of an improvement service for child cognitive ability aimed at the development of linguistic ability in children between the ages of 3-6 years: An evaluation for short-term effectiveness. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 31(6), Lee, H. (2011). Relations among teaching, false belief, vocabulary and school readiness. The Korean Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24(2), Lee, K. S., Chang, Y. H., Chung, M. R., & Hong, Y. H. (2002). Parents perception and the current state of very early education at home. Korean Journal of Early Childhood Education, 22(3), Yoon, B.-H., & Kim, H.-J. (2012). Correlations among perspective taking, theory of mind, recognition of the teaching intention, reaction of teaching and learning in young children. Korean Journal of Early Childhood Education, 32(1),

13 31 Young Children's Understanding of Intention of Teaching Jeein Jeong ORCID Received March 2, 2018 Revision received May 29, 2018 Accepted June 6, 2018

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