Pil Yeon Jeong, et al. Relationship between Phonological Awareness and Implicit Learning 린이유로단어에대한음운정보에접근 (accessing) 하고, 저장 (storing) 하는능력에어려움이있기때문으로
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1 ISSN (Print) ISSN (Online) Commun Sci Disord 2016;21(1):37-46 Original Article Relationship between Implicit Learning and Phonological Awareness in Children with Articulation and Phonological Disorders Pil Yeon Jeong, Dongsun Yim Department of Communication Disorders, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea Correspondence: Dongsun Yim, PhD Department of Communication Disorders, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03760, Korea Tel: Fax: Received: October 7, 2015 Revised: November 6, 2015 Accepted: December 14, 2015 This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korean government (NRF-2013R1A2A2A ). Objectives: Children with articulation and phonological disorders (APD) have impaired phonological awareness. Phonological awareness and implicit learning ability are associated with the same brain regions. Controversial studies have been conducted on phonological awareness and implicit learning. The purpose of the present study was to compare the characteristics of phonological awareness and implicit learning between children with APD and normal children. The main objective was to evaluate the relationship between phonological awareness and implicit learning ability in children with APD. Methods: A total of 32 children participated in the study. Sixteen children with APD (70.81 months) and 16 matched normally developing (ND) children (70.62 months) were administered five tests (Kaufman Assessment Battery for Korean Children-II, Receptive & Expressive Vocabulary Test, Urimal Test of Articulation and Phonology, sequence learning test and the phonological awareness test). Results: There were three main findings. First, the phonological awareness score of children with APD was significantly lower than normally developing children. Second, a significant difference was found in the sequence learning task (accuracy and implicit learning ability) of the two groups. Lastly, children with APD and ND had a positive correlation among sequence learning accuracy and phonological awareness. Conclusion: The results from the present study suggest that evaluation of sequence learning and phonological awareness are useful clinical approaches for studying APD. Keywords: Articulation and phonological disorders, Phonological awareness, Implicit learning, Explicit learning 음운인식능력 (phonological awareness) 이란단어의말소리구조에대한인식을나타내는상위언어능력으로말소리의합성과분리를통해단어내말소리를조작하는능력을의미한다 (Cunningham, 1990; Preston, Hull, & Edwards, 2013; Vicari et al., 2005). 음운인식능력의평가방법으로는음절, 리듬, 어두초성자음의인식과제등이포함되며이를통해음운표상능력 (phonological representation) 을알수있다 (Preston et al., 2013). 일반아동의음운인식능력은연령이증가함으로써발달해가며 (Felton & Pepper, 1995; Kim & Kim, 2006) 단어수준에서음절수준으로, 다시음소수준으로점진적으로세분화되면서발달해간 다 (Hong, Jeon, Pae, & Lee, 2002). 음운인식능력의발달은말소리에대한음운부호화 (phonological encoding) 로부터시작하여점차적으로음운적구조 (phonological structure) 에대한이해능력으로발달해가는데 (Burlea, Chirita, & Burlea, 2010), 조음음운장애아동은이러한음운인식능력이일반아동에비해더낮은수행을나타낸다 (Burlea et al., 2010; Cowan & Moran, 1997; Cunningham, 1990; Kim, Shin, & Ahn, 2005; Ko & Kim, 2010; Preston & Edwards, 2010; Preston et al., 2012; Preston et al., 2013; Rvachew, 2006; Rvachew, Chiang, & Evans, 2007; Sutherland & Gillon, 2007). 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력발달이일반아동에비해느 Copyright 2016 Korean Academy of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 37
2 Pil Yeon Jeong, et al. Relationship between Phonological Awareness and Implicit Learning 린이유로단어에대한음운정보에접근 (accessing) 하고, 저장 (storing) 하는능력에어려움이있기때문으로설명하고있다 (Sutherland & Gillon, 2007). 특히조음오류가더빈번한아동은그렇지않은아동에비해더낮은음운인식능력을나타내는데, 이는비정상적인음운오류가약화된음운표상능력을반영하기때문이다 (Preston & Edwards, 2010). 선행연구에서는음운인식능력의결함을암묵적학습 (implicit learning) 능력과관련지어설명하고있다 (Menghini, Hagberg, Caltagirone, Petrosini, & Vicari, 2006; Vicari, Marotta, Menghini, Molinari, & Petrosini, 2003; Vicari et al., 2005). 이는단어분절 (word segmentation) 과같은언어의기본적요소에대한습득이우연적인 (accidental) 방식으로습득될수있다는가설과연관되기때문이다 (Vinter & Perruchet, 2000). 암묵적학습은새로운정보에대해의식하지않은상태에서우연적으로학습하는것을의미한다 (Dienes, Broadbent, & Berry, 1991; Meulemans, Van der Linden, & Perruchet, 1998). 이러한암묵적학습능력은발달초기부터습득되는것으로알려져있다 (Meulemans et al., 1998; Vinter & Perruchet, 2000). 예를들어 6세부터 10세사이의아동을대상으로암묵적학습능력의발달차이를분석해보면연령에따른차이가없는것으로나타나는데, 이는이미 6세부터암묵적학습이일어나고있다는것을의미하는것이다 (Meulemans et al., 1998; Vinter & Perruchet, 2000). 암묵적학습능력은운동학습 (motor learning) 이나인지적능력 (cognitive skill) 의집행및습득과관련된절차적학습 (procedural learning) 을의미하여특히순서화 (sequence) 와관련이있다 (Ullman, 2004; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005). 암묵적학습이순서화와무의식적인학습기능을반영하기때문에암묵적학습능력에대한평가는순서학습과제 (sequence learning task) 를통해실시하고있다. 이과제는인공문법학습 (artificial grammar learning) 과제를적용하여평가하고있다 (Conway, Pisoni, Anaya, Karpicke, & Henning, 2011; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005; Vicari et al., 2003, 2005). 이패러다임은 Reber (1967) 에의해고안된것으로인공문법에의해만들어진문법적문자열 (letter string) 과무선적으로만들어진비문법적과제를학습하는것이다. 다시말해이패러다임에서는유한상태문법 (finite-state grammar) 에의해생성된것을기억하고, 이후에는새롭고, 비문법적인문자열 (nongrammartical string) 을학습하도록요청하는것이다 (Dienes et al., 1991). 이인공문법패러다임에시각적과제 (visual task) 를적용하여암묵적학습능력의수행능력을비교한결과, 읽기장애아동 (Vicari et al., 2003, 2005), 인공와우이식아동 (Conway et al., 2011) 및단순언어장애아동 (Ullman & Pierpont, 2005) 의암묵적학습능력에서결함을보인다는보고가이어져오고있다. 이세장애집단은공통적으로음운인식능력이나조음능력에결함을동반하는고위험군에속한다고볼수있다. 그러나현재까지이루어진연구들을살펴보면조음음운장애아동의암묵적학습능력과음운인식능력간의관계에대한연구는이루어지지않은실정으로이러한연구가조음음운장애집단을대상으로이루어질필요가있다. 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력이어떠한관련성이있는지살펴본연구들에의하면상반된연구들이보고되고있다. 두변인간에상관관계가있다는연구에서는음운인식능력이낮은경우암묵적학습능력에서도결함을보인다는결과를제시하고있다 (Burlea et al., 2010). 신경해부학적인증거들을통해서도음운인식능력과순서의습득및집행능력을나타내는암묵적학습능력은연관성이있다는것을알수있다 (Doyon et al., 1998; Jackson, Lafleur, Malouin, Richards, & Doyon, 2003; Menghini et al., 2006; Molinari et al., 1997; Petersen, Van Mier, Fiez, & Raichle, 1998; Ullman, 2004; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005; Vicari et al., 2003). 예를들어음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력의결함은피질영역의비활성화 (Petersen et al., 1998; Vicari et al., 2003) 와소뇌손상 (Jackson et al., 2003; Molinari et al., 1997; Ullman, 2004; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005), 선조체 (striatal) (Doyon et al., 1998) 의비활성화와관련이있는데이러한결과들을볼때음운인식능력과암묵적학습을관장하는대뇌영역이공통적으로중첩 (overlap) 되어작동하고있다는것을확인할수있다 (Menghini et al., 2006; Molinari et al., 1997; Ullman, 2004; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005; Vicari et al., 2003). 그러나이와는상반되는연구로암묵적학습과음운인식능력간에는연관성이없다는보고가있다 (Cunningham, 1990). 음운인식능력을증진시키기위한중재연구를통해암묵적학습보다는외현적학습 (explicit learning) 이음운인식능력의발달을촉진한다는결과를제시하고있다. 즉, 지시 (instruction) 없이음소를분리하고합성하기를반복 (drill) 하는절차적학습과음운인식능력의목적 (value) 과효용성 (utility) 에대한의도적인논의를통한상위인지적 (metacognition) 접근을통한외현적학습을통해음운인식능력을중재한결과암묵적학습보다외현적학습을통해음운인식능력이증가하였다는것이다 (Cunningham, 1990). 현재까지이루어진연구들에서조음음운장애를음운인식능력의결함과관련지어주요한요인으로설명하고있고, 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계에대해서는상반된결과를제시하고있는실정이다. 따라서본연구에서는조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력을일반아동과비교하여살펴보고, 음운인식능력의 38
3 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계 정필연외 결함을암묵적학습과외현적학습간의관련성으로분석해봄으로써조음음운장애의평가및중재시필요한임상적함의를제공하고자한다. 연구문제는다음과같다. 가. 일반아동과조음음운장애아동은음운인식능력에서차이가있는가? 나. 일반아동과조음음운장애아동은순서학습과제 ( 정확도, 암묵적학습능력 ) 에서차이가있는가? 다. 일반아동과조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과순서학습과제 ( 정확도, 암묵적학습능력 ) 간에는상관이있는가? 연구방법연구대상본연구에는서울및수도권지역에거주하는생활연령만 5-7세의일반아동과조음음운장애아동 32명이연구대상으로참여하였다 ( 일반아동 16명, 조음음운장애아동 16명, 남아 26명, 여아 6명 ). 일반아동집단의연구대상포함기준은수용어휘능력 (Receptive & Expressive Vocabulary Test, REVT; Kim, Hong, Kim, Jang, & Lee, 2010) 검사의백분위점수가 30%ile 이상에속하고, 자음정확도 (Urimal Test of Articulation and Phonology, U-TAP; Kim & Shin, 2004) 는생활연령평균의 -1 SD 이상으로조음능력이정상범주에해당하며청력및시력등감각장애를동반하지않은아동이포함되었다. 조음음운장애아동집단의포함기준은어휘능력과청력및시력은일반아동집단과동일하며자음정확도에서생활연령평균의 -1 SD 이하에속하여조음치료가요구되는아동을대상으로하였다. 일반아동집단의생활연령은평균 ( 표준편차 8.1) 개월, 조음음운장애아동의생활연령은평균 ( 표준편차 6.8) 개월로두집단간생활연령의차이는없는것으로나타났다 (t(30) = -.21, p>.05). 아동지능점수는일반아동집단평균은 ( 표준편차 15.38) 점, 조음음운장애아동집단평균은 ( 표준편차 12.46) 점으로두집단간지능점수에서차이는없는것으로나타났다 (t(30) =.39, p>.05). 수용어휘능력은일반아동집단평균은 ( 표준편차 13.62) 점, 조음음운장애아동집단평균은 ( 표준편차 12.63) 점으로두집단간어휘능력에서차이는없는것으로나타났다 (t(30) =.86, p>.05). 자음정확도는일반아동집단평균은 100 ( 표준편차 0) 점, 조음음운장애아동집단평균은 ( 표준편차 6.16) 점으로두집단간유의한차이가있는것으로나타났다 (t(30) = 8.30, p<.001). 일반아동과조음음운장애아동두집단의생활연령, 지능점수, 자음정확도, 어휘능력의결과는 Table 1에제시하였다. Table 1. Participants characteristics 연구방법 연구과제 아동의인지적능력을알아보기위해카우프만 - 아동지능검사 (Kaufman Assessment Battery for Korean Children-II, KABC-II; Moon, 1997) 를실시하였고, 어휘능력을살펴보기위해수용 표현 어휘력검사 (REVT; Kim et al., 2010) 를실시하였으며, 조음능력을 알아보기위해우리말조음음운평가 (U-TAP; Kim & Shin, 2004) 를실시하였다. 음운인식능력의측정은선행연구 (Kim & Pae, 2007) 의과제를 사용하였다. 음운인식과제는탈락, 합성, 변별및분절과제등 4 가 지로이루어져있으며단어 (word) 와음절 (syllable) 수준의평가로 이루어져있다. 단어수준은총 12 문항이고, 음절수준은총 18 문항 으로구성되어있다. 탈락과제, 합성과제및변별과제는단어와음 절이 3 개문항이고, 분절과제는단어수준은 3 개문항, 음절수준은 9 개문항으로이루어져있다. Appendix 1 에음운인식능력평가의 예를제시하였다. APD (n = 16) NL (n = 16) t Age (mo) (6.8) (8.1) -.21 KABC-II (12.46) (15.38).39 U-TAP (6.16) 100 (0) 8.3*** Receptive vocabulary a (12.63) (13.62).86 Values are presented as mean (SD). APD= children with articulation and phonological disorders; NL= children with normal language; KABC-II= Kaufman Assessment Battery for Korean Children-II (Moon, 1997); U-TAP= Urimal Test of Articulation and Phonology (Kim & Shin, 2004). a Receptive & Expressive Vocabulary Test (Kim, Hong, Kim, Jang, & Lee, 2010). ***p <.001. 암묵적학습능력은선행연구 (Conway et al., 2011) 에서사용한 순서학습과제 (sequence learning task) 를사용하여측정하였다. 이 과제는자극을생성하기위한두가지인공문법과제 (artificial grammar) 를적용하는데, 선행하는구성요소에따라나타나는특정한 구성요소 ( 예를들어, 색깔 ) 의확률 (probability) 에따라제시되는 순서를구체화 (specify) 하여적용하고이를측정하는것이다. 순서학습과제의구성은학습단계 (learning phase) 와실험단계 (test phase) 로이루어져있다. 학습단계에서는총 16 개의항목이제 시되는데, 2 개의순서 (sequence) 로 6 개항목, 3 개의순서로 5 개항 목, 4 개의순서로 5 개항목으로구성되어있다. 각항목이순서대로 주어지면제시되는순서대로재현하기 (sequence reproduction task) 를수행하도록하였다. 학습단계의과제를통해순서학습의정확도 를측정하며지시에따라기억한것을재현하는기능을수행하기 때문에외현적학습능력을측정하게된다. 실험단계는문법 (gram- 39
4 Pil Yeon Jeong, et al. Relationship between Phonological Awareness and Implicit Learning Figure 1. Sequence learning task. mar) A와문법 B로이루어져있다. 문법 A는문법과제이고, 문법 B 는비문법과제에해당한다. 문법과제는인공문법과일치하는것이고, 비문법과제는인공문법과일치하지않으며새로운순서를제시하는과제를나타낸다 (Conway et al., 2011). 문법 A와문법 B의항목은각 12개로구성되어있으며 3개순서로 4개항목, 4개순서로 4개항목, 5개순서로 4개항목으로구성되어있다. 문법 A와문법 B는각 12개항목으로총 24개항목으로과제가구성되어있다. 이과제에서는문법규칙을비문법규칙에적용하는능력을측정하는것으로암묵적학습능력을측정하게된다. Appendix 2에순서학습과제의예를제시하였다. 암묵적학습과제는태블릿 PC 모니터 (Samsung Galaxy Tab) 의상단좌우에 2개, 하단좌우에 2개로총 4개의네모모양이제시되는데, 1개의네모모양이제시되는시간은 700 ms 동안나타나고, 500 ms 동안사라지며 (blank) 다음네모가다시나타난다. 각항목만큼과제가다제시되고나서 500 ms 동안멈춘후 4개의네모가다시나타나는데, 아동은본순서대로정확하게스크린터치를하도록하고, 1개의반응을마친후에는다음지시버튼을눌러다음과제를계속하도록지시하였다. Figure 1에태블릿 PC에서실행되는과제를제시하였다. 연구절차평가가이루어진순서는카우프만 -아동지능검사, 수용및표현어휘력검사, 자음정확도검사, 음운인식과제, 순서학습과제순으로실시하였다. 음운인식과제는선행연구 (Kim & Pae, 2007) 와동일하게음운탈락검사, 음운합성검사, 음운변별검사, 음운분절검사순서로진행하였다. 음운탈락검사는아동에게말소리빼기놀이를한다고한다음음소와음절수준에서각 1문항씩총 2개의연습문항을실시한다음본검사를실시하였다. 음운합성검사는말소리더하기놀이를한다고한다음연습문항과본검사를실시하였다. 음운변별검사는말소리하나가다른낱말을골라내는놀이라고지시하였고, 음운분절검사는말소리나누기놀이를할것이라고지시한다음음절수준에서 3개, 음소수준에서 9개항목으로총 12개항목으로이루어진검사를실시하였다. 순서학습과제는선행연구 (Conway et al., 2011) 와동일한절차대로아동에게지시하고, 진행하였다. 지시사항은다음과같다. 컴퓨터화면에여러가지색깔의네모모양이나타나요. 네모모양은화면에서깜빡이는데, 는이색깔들을기억해야돼요. 네모가하나씩깜빡인다음에는네모 4개가한꺼번에모두보일거예요. 보고난다음에같은순서대로색깔을누르면되요. 예를들어서 가빨강-초록-파란색깔을봤으면빨간네모, 초록네모, 파란네모를누르면되요. 누를때는손가락으로하고, 쉴때는팔을내리고쉬세요. 아동의인지능력검사, 수용및표현어휘력검사, 자음정확도검사, 음운인식검사와순서학습과제를평가하는데걸린시간은총 1 시간 40-50분정도소요되었으며 2회에걸쳐검사를실시하였다. 자료분석음운인식능력은말소리의탈락, 합성, 변별및분절과제의정반응한수의합으로측정하였으며단어수준과음절수준의총합으로분석하였다. 순서학습과제는정확도 (accuracy) 와암묵적학습능력 (implicit learning ability) 을측정하였다. 정확도는학습과제 (learning phase) 에서정반응한수의총합으로측정하였다. 암묵적학습능력은암묵적학습점수 (learning score, LRN) 를나타내는데기억폭 (memory span) 을측정하는것으로실험과제 (test phase) 에서문법과제 (grammatical sequence test) A와비문법과제 (ungrammatical sequence test) B의정반응한수의차이 (grammar A-grammar B) 로측정하였다. 통계분석조음음운장애아동과일반아동집단간음운인식능력과순서학습과제의차이는두독립표본 t-검정을실시하였고, 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의상관관계는 Pearson 상관계수를사용하여분석하였다. 연구결과일반아동과조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력의차이두집단간음운인식능력과제수행에서조음음운장애아동은 6.44 (SD = 4.64) 점으로일반아동 9.32 (SD = 5.05) 점에비해유의하 40
5 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계 정필연외 Table 2. Results of phonological awareness and sequence learning scores of the two groups APD (n = 16) ND (n = 16) t PA 6.44 (4.64) 9.32 (5.05) 2.13* Accuracy (2.68) (3.47) 2.16* LRN (1.86).56 (1.34) 3.94*** Values are presented as mean (SD). APD= children with articulation and phonological disorders; ND= normally developing children; PA= phonological awareness; LRN= implicit learning score. *p <.05, ***p <.001. Table 4. Results of correlation between PA and sequence learning in APD 두집단간상관분석결과는 Table 4 에제시하였다. PA Accuracy PA -.56* Accuracy.56* - LRN APD=children with articulation and phonological disorders; PA=phonological awareness; LRN= implicit learning score. *p <.05. Table 3. Results of correlation between PA and sequence learning in NL 게낮은수행을보였다 (t(30) = 2.13, p<.05). 일반아동과조음음운 장애아동의음운인식능력의차이를 Table 2 에제시하였다. 일반아동과조음음운장애아동의순서학습능력의차이 순서학습과제의정확도과제수행에서조음음운장애아동은 (SD = 2.68) 점으로일반아동 (SD = 3.47) 점에비해유의 하게낮은수행을보였고 (t(30) = 2.16, p<.05), 암묵적학습능력수 행에서도조음음운장애아동은 (SD =1.86) 점으로일반아동.56 (SD =1.34) 점에비해유의하게낮은수행을나타내었다 (t(30) = 3.94, p<.001). 일반아동과조음음운장애아동의순서학습정확도와암묵적학 습능력의차이를 Table 2 에제시하였다. 일반아동의음운인식능력과순서학습능력간의관계 일반아동의음운인식능력과순서학습정확도간에는유의한상 관이있는것으로나타났다 (r =.79, p <.01). 일반아동의음운인식 능력과암묵적학습능력간에는상관이없는것으로나타났다. 두집단간상관분석결과는 Table 3 에제시하였다. 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과순서학습능력간의관계 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과정확도간에는유의한상 관이있는것으로나타났다 (r =.56, p<.05). 조음음운장애아동의 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간에는상관이없는것으로나 타났다. PA Accuracy PA -.79** Accuracy.79** - LRN ND = normally developing children; PA = phonological awareness; LRN = implicit learning score. **p <.01. 논의및결론본연구는 5-7세의일반아동과조음음운장애아동을대상으로음운인식능력과정확도, 암묵적학습능력간의수행차이를알아보고, 두변인간관련성을분석해봄으로써조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력의결함을암묵적학습능력의결함으로설명할수있는지알아보고자하였다. 일반아동과조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력의차이연구결과일반아동과조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력은유의한차이가있는것으로나타났다. 이러한결과는조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력은일반아동에비해더낮은수행을보인다는선행연구의결과를지지하는것이다 (Burlea et al., 2010; Cowan & Moran, 1997; Cunningham, 1990; Kim et al., 2005; Ko & Kim, 2010; Preston et al., 2012; Preston et al., 2013; Preston & Edwards, 2010; Rvachew, 2006; Rvachew et al., 2007; Sutherland & Gillon, 2007). 말산출에어려움이있는조음음운장애아동은음운변동을적절하게적용하지못하기때문에일반아동에비해음운인식능력에서어려움을보인다 (Justice & Schuele, 2004). 이는조음음운장애로인한비정상적인음운오류가보다높은수준의음운표상능력발달을방해하기때문에음운정보를조직화하고 (Preston & Edwards, 2010), 저장하는능력을저하시키기때문이다 (Sutherland & Gillon, 2007). 또한조음음운장애의중재시음운인식능력의개선은조음치료의유지와일반화에중요한역할을한다 (Hesketh, Adams, Nightingale, & Hall, 2000). 따라서조음음운장애의평가및중재시음운인식능력에대한평가가학령기이전에이루어지도록권고하며, 학령기이후에도음운인식능력에대한검토가지속적으로이루어질필요성이있다는것을시사하는것이다 (Rvachew et al., 2007). 41
6 Pil Yeon Jeong, et al. Relationship between Phonological Awareness and Implicit Learning 일반아동과조음음운장애아동의순서학습능력의차이조음음운장애아동의순서학습능력은정확도와암묵적학습능력모두에서일반아동에비해상대적으로낮은수행을나타내었다. 이는인공와우이식아동을대상으로한선행연구 (Conway et al., 2011) 의결과와는상반된결과이다. Conway 등 (2011) 의연구에서는인공와우이식아동과일반아동은정확도에서차이가나지않았으며, 제시되는자극의순서를즉각적으로기억하여반복하는과제를어려움없이처리하는것으로나타났다. 그러나본연구에참여한조음음운장애아동은일반아동에비해시각적순서를즉각적으로재현 (reproduce) 하는데어려움이있다는것이다. 정확도과제는그자체로는문법학습을반영하지않기때문에 (Conway et al., 2011) 정확도에서의제한된수행은외현적학습에서어려움이있다는것을반영하는것이다. 그렇기때문에후속연구에서는조음음운장애아동의외현적학습능력과함께시청각적주의력에대한추가적인평가가이루어진다면보다많은임상적정보를얻을수있을것으로생각한다. 암묵적학습능력에서도조음음운장애아동의수행능력이일반아동에비해더낮은것으로나타났다. 이러한결과는읽기장애아동 (Vicari et al., 2003, 2005), 인공와우이식아동 (Conway et al., 2011), 단순언어장애아동 (Ullman & Pierpont, 2005) 이암묵적학습능력에서결함을보인다는선행연구의결과와동일한결과이다. 본연구에서암묵적학습능력은순서학습과제의문법과제와비문법과제수행차이를통해측정하였다. 암묵적학습능력은문법과제를비문법과제에무의식적으로적용하는능력을반영하는데일반아동에비해조음음운장애아동은문법과제와비문법과제간차이가적게나타났다. 이는일반아동은암묵적학습이이루어지나조음음운장애아동은암묵적학습이이루어지지않는다는것을나타내는것이다. 이러한결과는조음음운장애아동은순서에대한기억폭 (sequence memory spans) 이제한적이라는것을의미한다. 문법과제를통해반복적으로제시되는자극에내재되어있는규칙성을발견하여새로운자극즉비문법과제에적용할수있는암묵적학습능력은무의식적이고, 우연적인학습능력을반영한다. 단어분절능력또한우연적학습으로습득되기때문에 (Vinter & Perruchet, 2000), 음운인식능력이낮은조음음운장애아동은암묵적학습능력에서도낮은수행을보일수있다는가설을지지하는것이다. 또한암묵적학습과정은새로운운동기술, 지각, 인지적능력을습득하고, 집행하는것으로자동화기술 (automatisation) 로이루어지며순서에따른처리능력과관련이있다. 그런이유로조음음운장애아동의청각적처리패턴에대한자동화기술의결함이음운처리능력에부정적인영향을미칠뿐아니라 (Vicari et al., 2005), 시각적패턴의순서처리능력이제한됨으로써암묵적학습능력에서도어려움을나타내는것으로사료된다. 일반아동과조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계순서학습과제를통해일반아동과조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계를분석한결과, 두집단모두음운인식능력과순서학습과제의정확도간에유의한상관이있는것으로나타났다. 즉음운인식능력이높으면정확도가높고, 음운인식능력이낮은경우에는정확도가낮은것이다. 본연구에서정확도란기억하라는지시에따라제시된색깔의순서를동일하게재현하여정반응한수를측정하는과제로외현적인학습능력을나타내는것이다. 이러한결과는음운인식능력의중재시암묵적학습보다는외현적학습이음운인식능력의발달을촉진한다는결과를지지하는것이다 (Cunningham, 1990). 또한조음음운장애아동은음운정보저장의효율성이일반아동에비해더낮은것으로알려져있는데 (Sutherland & Gillon, 2007) 음운정보를저장하는능력과시각적으로제시되는순서를기억하는능력이공통적으로기억능력에기반을두기때문에음운인식능력과정확도가상관이있는것으로보인다. 그러나, 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간에는유의한상관이나타나지않았다. 이러한결과는음운인식능력과암묵적학습이신경학적으로연관되어작동한다는선행연구와는상반된결과이다. 음운인식능력과암묵적학습과정에서활성화되는대뇌피질연결고리 (loops) 들간의작동에는기저핵 (basal ganglia) 과소뇌가그역할을한다. 소뇌는들어오는감각정보를조정하고, 정확한운동을실행하기위해오류를감지하고, 수정하는작용을하며 (Doyon et al., 2002), 선조체는잘학습된운동능력을장기적으로저장하는역할을하기때문에암묵적학습능력에서의결함을소뇌와선조체활성화의결함으로설명하고있다 (Grafton, Woods & Tyszka, 1994; Vicari et al., 2005). 본연구에서는음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력이상관이없는것으로나타나신경해부학적연관성으로설명하기에는충분하지않으며이와관련된후속연구가필요할것으로보인다. 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력이상관을나타내지않은또다른이유로선행연구와는다른과제를측정한것과연관지어볼수있다. 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력이관련이있다는선행연구 (Vicari et al., 2003, 2005) 에서는반응시간 (reaction time) 을통해암묵적학습능력을측정한것이다. 이러한과제의차이가연구결과에도영향을미쳤을것으로보인다. 42
7 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계 정필연외 본연구를통해조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력, 순서학습정확도및암묵적학습능력은일반아동에비해낮은수행을보였고, 음운인식능력과정확도간에상관이있다는것을확인할수있었다. 이러한결과는암묵적학습능력이발달초기부터습득된다는점을고려할때 (Meulemans et al., 1998; Vinter & Perruchet, 2000), 조음음운장애아동의낮은정확도와암묵적학습능력은이후음운인식능력과조음능력발달에있어서예측변인 (sign) 이될수있을것으로보여진다 (Vicari et al., 2005). 따라서조음음운장애아동의평가및중재시에음운인식능력과순서학습정확도및암묵적학습능력을고려하고, 외현적학습이음운인식능력의발달을촉진하므로이에대한중재가우선되어야함을제안한다. 본연구의제한점과후속연구를위한제언은첫째, 본연구에는경도부터중도수준의자음정확도를보이는조음음운장애아동들이포함되었다. 후속연구에서자음정확도의중증도를고려한연구가이루어진다면보다세부적인임상적정보를제공해줄수있을것으로사료된다. 둘째, 본연구에서는순서학습과제를통해암묵적학습능력을평가하였다. 추후연구에서는다양한암묵적학습과제를사용하여음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계를살펴볼것을제안한다. REFERENCES Burlea, G., Chirita, R., & Burlea, A. (2010). Tulburari ale limbajului oral si scris cauzate de deficitul fonologic la copil [Disorders of oral and written speech caused by phonological deficit in children]. Revista Românå de Pediatrie, 59, Conway, C. M., Pisoni, D. B., Anaya, E. M., Karpicke, J., & Henning, S. C. (2011). Implicit sequence learning in deaf children with cochlear implants. Developmental Science, 14, Cowan, W. E., & Moran, M. J. (1997). Phonological awareness skills of children with articulation disorders in kindergarten to third grade. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 18, Cunningham, A. E. (1990). Explicit versus implicit instruction in phonemic awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, Dienes, Z., Broadbent, D., & Berry, D. C. (1991). Implicit and explicit knowledge bases in artificial grammar learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, Doyon, J., Laforce, R., Bouchard, G., Gaudreau, D., Roy, J., Poirier, M.,... & Bouchard, J. P. (1998). Role of the striatum, cerebellum and frontal lobes in the automatization of a repeated visuomotor sequence of movements. Neuropsychologia, 36, Doyon, J., Song, A. W., Karni, A., Lalonde, F., Adams, M. M., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2002). Experience-dependent changes in cerebellar contributions to motor sequence learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, Felton, R. H., & Pepper, P. P. (1995). Early identification and intervention of phonological deficits in kindergarten and early elementary children at risk for reading disability. School Psychology Review, 24, Grafton, S., Woods, R. P., & Tyszka, M. (1994). Functional imaging of procedural motor learning: relating cerebral blood flow with individual subject performance. Human Brain Mapping, 1, Hesketh, A., Adams, C., Nightingale, C., & Hall, R. (2000). Phonological awareness therapy and articulatory training approaches for children with phonological disorders: a comparative outcome study. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 35, Hong, S. I., Jeon, S. I., Pae, S., & Lee, I. (2002). Development of phonological awareness in Korean children. Korean Journal of Communication Disorders, 7, Jackson, P. L., Lafleur, M. F., Malouin, F., Richards, C. L., & Doyon, J. (2003). Functional cerebral reorganization following motor sequence learning through mental practice with motor imagery. Neuroimage, 20, Justice, L. M., & Schuele, C. M. (2004). Phonological awareness: description, assessment, and intervention. In J. E. Bernthal & N. W. Bankson (Eds.), Articulation and phonological disorders (5th ed., pp ). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Kim, J. K., Shin, J. H., & Ahn, S. W. (2005). A study of comparison in phonological awareness ability between articulatorily phonologically disabled children and normal children. Journal of Special Children Education, 7, Kim, M. B., & Pae, S. (2007). Word recognition and phonological awareness of kindergartener, second and fourth graders. Journal of Speech-Language & Hearing Disorder, 16, Kim, S. J., & Kim, Y. T. (2006). Development of phonological awareness abilities of normal children in the age of 5 and 6 through phonological elision task and its correlation to other phonological processing abilities. Korean Journal of Communication disorders, 11, Kim, Y. T., & Shin, M. J. (2004). Urimal Test of Articulation and Phonology (U-TAP). Seoul: Hakjisa. Kim, Y. T., Hong, G. H., Kim, K. H., Jang, H. S., & Lee, J. Y. (2010). Receptive & expressive vocabulary test (REVT). Seoul: Seoul Community Rehabili- 43
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9 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계 정필연외 Appendix 1. 음운인식검사 (Kim & Pae, 2007) 일부예시 1. 탈락검사 : 지금부터말소리빼기놀이를할거예요. 초 에서 ㅊ 을빼면무슨소리가남죠? 연습문제를주어아동이맞추면다음문제로넘어가고틀리면정답을가르쳐준후다시한번기회를준다. 문항반응문항반응 연습문제나비 - 나초 - ㅊ ( 오 ) 비누 - 비사 - ㅅ ( 아 ) 2. 합성검사 : 지금부터말소리더하기놀이를할거예요. ㅋ 에다가 오 를더하면무슨소리가되죠? 연습문제를주어아동이맞추면다음문제로넘어가고틀리면정답을가르쳐준후다시한번기회를준다. 문항반응문항반응 연습문제방 + 울ㅋ + 오 ( 코 ) 시 + 계ㅅ + 애 ( 새 ) 3. 변별검사 : 지금부터말소리하나가다른낱말을골라내는놀이를할거예요. 삼, 실, 북중에서앞의소리 ( 뒤의소리 ) 가다른것은어떤거지요? 연습문제를주어아동이맞추면다음문제로넘어가고틀리면정답을가르쳐준후다시한번기회를준다. 문항반응문항반응 연습문제하마 - 수박 - 하품삼 - 실 - 북 나무 - 나팔 - 부채 해 - 새 - 혀 4. 분절검사 : 지금부터말소리나누기를할거예요. 책 을말소리로나누면어떻게되지요? 연습문제를주어아동이맞추면다음문제로넘어가고틀리면정답을가르쳐준후다시한번기회를준다. 문항반응문항반응 연습문제사탕 ( 사 + 탕 ) 책 ( ㅊ + ㅐ + ㄱ ) 가방 ( 가 + 방 ) 소 Appendix 2. 순서학습과제 Sequence length Learning sequence Test sequence A Test sequence B
10 Pil Yeon Jeong, et al. Relationship between Phonological Awareness and Implicit Learning 국문초록 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계정필연 임동선 이화여자대학교언어병리학과배경및목적 : 조음음운장애아동은일반아동에비해음운인식능력이더낮은것으로보고되고있다. 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력의관계에관해서는상반된연구들이진행되어오고있다. 본연구는일반아동과조음음운장애아동을대상으로두집단간음운인식능력과외현적학습및암묵적학습능력이차이가있는지알아보고, 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간의관계를알아보고자하였다. 방법 : 총연구대상은 32명으로생활연령평균 70.81개월의일반아동 16명, 생활연령평균 70.62개월의조음음운장애아동 16명이참여하였다. 카우프만아동지능검사 II, 수용및표현어휘력검사, 우리말조음 음운검사, 음운인식능력, 순서학습과제 ( 정확도, 암묵적학습능력 ) 를평가하였다. 결과 : 첫째, 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력은일반아동에비해유의하게낮은수행을나타내었다. 둘째, 조음음운장애아동의순서학습정확도와암묵적학습능력은일반아동에비해유의하게낮은수행을나타내었다. 셋째, 조음음운장애아동의음운인식능력과정확도에서는유의한상관이있고, 음운인식능력과암묵적학습능력간에는유의한상관이없는것으로나타났다. 논의및결론 : 조음음운장애의평가시음운인식능력과함께외현적학습및암묵적학습능력을고려하고, 음운인식능력의중재에서외현적학습이음운인식능력발달을촉진하므로이에대한중재가우선시되어야한다. 핵심어 : 조음음운장애, 음운인식, 암묵적학습, 외현적학습본연구는정부 ( 교육부 ) 의재원으로한국연구재단의지원을받은연구임 (NRF-2013R1A2A2A ). 참고문헌 고유경, 김수진 (2010). 기능적조음음운장애아동과일반아동의음운인식과읽기능력의비교및상관. 언어청각장애연구, 15, 김미배, 배소영 (2007). 유치원, 초등 2, 4학년의낱말재인및음운인식능력. 언어치료연구, 16, 김선정, 김영태 (2006). 음운생략과제를통한 5-6세아동의음운인식발달및음운처리능력과의상관도연구. 언어청각장애연구, 11, 김영태, 신문자 (2004). 우리말조음 음운평가 (U-TAP). 서울 : 학지사. 김영태, 홍경훈, 김경희, 장혜성, 이주연 (2010). 수용 표현어휘력검사 (REVT). 서울 : 서울장애인종합복지관. 김자경, 신지현, 안성우 (2005). 조음및음운장애아동과일반아동간의음운인식능력비교. 특수아동교육연구, 7, 문수백 (1997). 카우프만아동용지능검사 II (KABC-II). 서울 : 학지사. 홍성인, 전세일, 배소영, 이익환 (2002). 한국아동의음운인식발달. 언어청각장애연구, 7,
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