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1 메타분석을통한자폐범주성장애의어휘처리양상연구 강민경 a 이수복 a,b 김영태 a, 임동선 a a 이화여자대학교대학원언어병리학과, b 신 언어임상연구소 교신저자 김영태이화여자대학교대학원언어병리학과교수서울특별시서대문구대현동 youngtae@ewha.ac.kr tel.: 배경및목적 : 자폐범주성장애 (ASD) 그룹의어휘처리능력은그들의다른언어능력에비해습득및발달상의특이성을가지고있다. ASD 그룹의어휘처리능력이통제그룹과비슷한지또는차이를보이는지에대해서는 ASD 의하위유형중어떤집단을연구대상자로하였는지, 자극제시조건은어떠하였는지, 대상자에게실시되는과제유형은무엇이었는지에따라다르게나타날수있다. 본연구는메타분석을통해현재까지이루어진 ASD 그룹의어휘처리능력을체계적으로검토하고, 통제그룹과비교하여수행차이를보이는지에대해알아보고자한다. 방법 : 주제어를통해국외관련문헌을검토한후연구의포함과제외기준에따라체계적으로 14 개의문헌을선정하였다. ASD 그룹의어휘처리능력에대한효과크기는무선효과모델 (random effect model) 을사용하여산출하였다. 결과 : ASD 그룹의어휘처리능력에대한연구는고기능자폐, 아스퍼거증후군을대상으로많이이루어졌고, 과제유형은단어재인과제와어휘판단과제를가장많이사용하는것으로나타났다. 연구결과는첫째, ASD 그룹은전반적인어휘처리능력이통제그룹과차이가없는것으로나타났다. 둘째, 두가지자극제시조건에서의그룹간차이에서도 ASD 그룹과통제그룹간의차이는없는것으로나타났다. 마지막으로 ASD 그룹은어휘처리과제유형에따라수행력의차이를보이지않았다. 논의및결론 : ASD 그룹의어휘처리능력은그 ASD 의하위영역에따라차이를보일수있으나, 대부분의영역에서는통제그룹과차이를보이지않는것으로나타났다. 이러한결과를바탕으로 ASD 그룹의어휘중재에대한근거를제공할수있을것이다. 언어청각장애연구, 2012;17: 핵심어 : 어휘처리, 메타분석, 자폐범주성장애, 단어재인, 어휘판단, 그림이름대기 Ⅰ. 서론 자폐범주성장애 (Autism spectrum disorders: ASD, 이하 ASD) 의언어능력에대한연구는주로사회적기술과관련된의사소통기능, 즉화용적측면에초점을맞추고있다. 그결과 ASD 그룹이고기능자폐, 자폐, 전반적발달장애 (Pervasive Developmental Disorder: PDD) 등의다양한하위진단명의차이에도불구하고모두의사소통기능에결함이있음을공통되게밝혀냈다 (Baron-Cohen, 1989; Wetherby, 1986; Tager- Flusberg, 1997). 또한 ASD 그룹의의미론적발달과정에서흔히보고되는특이성은그들이특정사물을특정단어로만명명하는특정화단계에머무르는경우가많으며 ( 김영태, 1999), ASD 그룹의구문론적특성 은통제그룹에비하여다소짧은발화, 간단한문장구조, 그리고제한된문장형태를사용하는등의어려움을갖는다고하였다 (Tager-Flusberg & Calkins, 1990). 이처럼 ASD 그룹의언어능력에대한대부분의연구에서는이들이통제그룹에비해지체된다는일관된결과를보여주었다. 그러나 ASD 그룹의어휘처리 (lexical processing) 능력은다소상반된연구결과를보여주고있다 (Frith & Snowling, 1983; Minshew, Goldstein & Siegel, 1995; Heimann et al., 1995). 어휘처리는가장처음습득되는언어처리기제중하나로 (Pinker, 1990), 말 (speech) 이나글로표현된단어를습득하고, 재인하며산출하는과정을의미한다 (Yelland, 1994). 아동의어휘처리과정은이미존재하는구어처리체계와의결합으로이루어지게되기때 * 본연구는이화여자대학교 2011 년 Ewha Global Top5 Project 의연구비지원에의한연구임. 게재신청일 : 2012 년 4 월 19 일 최종수정일 : 2012 년 5 월 30 일 게재확정일 : 2012 년 6 월 5 일 c 2012 한국언어청각임상학회 274

2 강민경외 / 메타분석을통한자폐범주성장애의어휘처리양상연구 문에아동의발화경험이단어의음운적자질에대한이해를돕게된다. 그러나 ASD 그룹은발화경험의부족으로인하여구어처리체계발달이어렵고, 이에따라어휘처리의제한을보인다 (Frith & Snowling, 1983). ASD 그룹의어휘처리과정을설명하기위해가장많이사용되는이론은이중경로모형이다. 이중경로모형은입력된어휘처리를두가지경로, 즉어휘 경로 (lexical route) 와하위어휘경로 (sublexical route) 로설명한다. 어휘경로안에서는어휘-의미지식을이용한통단어 (whole word) 수준의처리가이루어진다. 반면에하위어휘경로에서는음운-철자변환또는 철자-음운변환과정을거친다 (Coltheart, 2006; Ellis, 1984). 따라서익숙한단어를읽을때에는음운-철자변환과정을거치지않고어휘경로만을이용하지만비단어나익숙하지않은단어를읽는경우에는하위어휘경로를거쳐야한다. 이모형을통하여, 해독은가능하지만읽기이해를잘못하는 ASD 그룹의어휘처리현상을설명한다. 예를들어, 비단어를제시하고단어재인을하도록하였을때, 통제그룹의경우에는하위어휘경로를통해철자-음운변환과정을거쳐단어를재인하는반면 ASD 그룹은하위어휘경로를이용하지못하고비단어와유사한조합을가지고있는익숙한단어로바꾸어읽는방식의특이성을보인다 (Frith & Snowling, 1983). 이런특이성은단어의형태를기억하여읽는 ASD 그룹의읽기특성때문이며, 일견단어 (sight word) 를읽을때보다비단어 (pseudo words) 를해독할때읽기수행력이더낮아지는원인을설명해준다 (Frith & Snowling, 1983). < 그림 - 1> 에서는읽기과정에서의이중경로모형을나타내고있다. 출처 : A schematic depiction of the DRC model of reading aloud, with lexical and sublexical processing highlighted (O Malley & Besner, 2011). < 그림 - 1> 읽기과정에서의이중경로모형 ASD 그룹의어휘처리과정이정상적인지, 지연된형태를보이는지, 또는대체되는다른메커니즘을따르는지에대한의견은일치하지않는다 (Patterson, Seidenberg & McClelland, 1989; Pratarelli & McIntyre, 1994). 예를들어, Forster & Davis (1984) 의연구에서는아스퍼거증후군과고기능자폐는어휘처리과정에서또래와유사한경로를이용하는것으로나타났다. 또한고기능자폐로진단된성인및청소년을대상으로일견단어읽기과제와비단어해독과제를실시하였을때또래수준과유사한수행을보였다 (Bradley & Forster, 1987; Yelland, 1994). 그러나비전형전반적발달장애 (PDD-NOS), 아스퍼거증후군, 그리고통제그룹의어휘처리과정을비교한 Nation et al. (2006) 의연구에서는일견단어읽기발달에있어서세집단간차이가없었으나, 비단어읽기발달에서는 ASD 그룹이어려움을보이는것으로나타났다. 또한 ASD 그룹내에서과제에따른수행도차이를보고자한 Minshew et al. (1995) 의연구에서는비단어해독과제가일견단어읽기능력에비해높은수행도를보인것으로나타났으나, Frith & Snowling (1983) 의연구에서는일견단어를읽을때보다비단어를해독할때수행력이더낮아진다고보고하였다. ASD 그룹의언어능력을살펴본연구들은과제제시조건 ( 예 : 시각적제시, 청각적제시 ) 이피험자의수행도에영향을미칠수있다고설명한다. Volkmar, Chawarska & Klin (2005) 에의하면 ASD 그룹의경우시각적자극제시방법이더효율적이라는것이임상적으로공통되는견해라고하였다. 하지만여러가지방법이동시에제공되더라도한가지자극에만선택적으로반응한다고보고하는연구도있다 (Schreibman, Koegel & Craig. 1977). 이러한반응형태는통제그룹과는다른 ASD 그룹의특성이며, ASD 그룹에게제약이될수도있고, 도움이될수도있다고설명한다. 본연구는국외 ASD 그룹을대상으로이루어진어휘처리과제의연구방법들을살펴보고, ASD 그룹의어휘처리양상이통제그룹과어떤차이를보이는지를살펴보고자한다. 또한 ASD 그룹의어휘처리과제하위유형별두가지자극제시조건에서의그룹간수행결과에관해분석하고자한다. 본연구의연구질문은다음과같다. 1) ASD 그룹과일반아동그룹의어휘처리능력에는차이가있는가? 275

3 언어청각장애연구 2012;17: ) ASD 그룹과일반아동그룹의어휘처리능력은두가지자극제시조건에서의그룹간차이를보이는가? 3) ASD 그룹은어휘처리과제반응조건에따라수행수준의차이를보이는가? 가. 발표년도연구의동향을살펴보기위해국외저널에게재된논문을발표년도제한없이검색하였으며검색결과 1983년부터 2011년에발표된논문이분류되었다. 나. 주제어 Ⅱ. 연구방법 1. 문헌검색방법 ASD 그룹에대한어휘처리양상을살펴보기위해국외데이터베이스와학술지검색을통해관련연구들을수집하였다. 데이터베이스 (ERIC; PsycINFO; PudMed) 와 ASHA(American Speech Language Hearing Association) 에서발행되는저널 (American Journal of Audiology; American Journal of Speech- Language Pathology; Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research; Language, Speech, and Hearing in Schools) 에게재된연구를바탕으로선정하였고, 세부적인기준은다음과같다. 다음과같은단어를주제어 (key word) 로정하였다. (1) 연구대상 : ASD, Autism, Asperger s syndrome, PDD, PDD-NOS, HFA(High Functioning Autism) (2) 연구과제 : lexical processing, word processing, word recognition, word decoding, lexical access 2. 논문의선정연구의목적에부합되는기준으로는 (1) 연구설계는단일대상연구또는문헌연구, 사례연구가아닌집단연구만을포함하였다. 단일대상의경우효과크기가크게산출되는경향이있어집단설계와함께분석할경우효과크기를증가시킬수있다는선행연구의내용을토대로본연구에서는제외하였다. (2) 연구대상은자폐범주성장애 (ASD) 에속하는대상으로 < 표 - 1> 연구의선정기준 항목포함기준제외기준 연구설계 연구대상 연구과제 연구결과 출판형태 무선할당집단연구 자폐범주성장애 (Autism Spectrum Disorder: ASD), 전반적발달장애 (Pervasive Developmental Disorder: PDD), 아스퍼거증후군 (Asperger s syndrome: AS). 비전형전반적발달장애 (Pervasive Developmental Disorder- Not Otherwise Specified: PDD-NOS), 고기능자폐 (High Functioning Autism) 그림이름대기과제 (picture naming), 어휘판단과제 (word decision), 단어재인과제 (word recognition), 비단어읽기과제 (nonword reading) 와같은어휘처리과제 어휘판단반응시간어휘판단정확율재인어휘정반응수 무선할당집단연구가아닌연구사전 - 사후통제연구, 단일대상연구, 문헌연구, 사례분석 단어재인또는반응속도에영향을미칠수있는 ADHD 및읽기장애를동반한 ASD 장애군, 뛰어난읽기능력으로결과에영향을줄수있는 Hyperlexia 를동반한경우 사회성기술 (social skill), 감정 (emotion), 작업기억 (working memory), 회상 (recall) 과제, 읽기이해 (reading comprehension), 쓰기 ( 철자 ) 기술 (writing skill), 진단 (diagnostic), 교수법 (Teaching method) fmri, eye tracking, 결과수치가불충분한자료 학술저널에발표된논문으로 SCI, SSCi 를모두포함학위논문, 단행본 276

4 강민경외 / 메타분석을통한자폐범주성장애의어휘처리양상연구 Articles initially identified from psycinfo, PubMed, ERIC and ASHA journals (n = 625) First round eligible articles(n = 548) Second round eligible articles(n = 356) Third round eligible articles (n = 27) Forth round eligible articles (n = 21 ) Included articles in the meta-analysis (n = 14) 연구설계제외기준 (n = 77) 단일대상연구사례연구리뷰연구 연구대상자제외기준 (n = 192) Hyperlexia ASD 이외의장애군 연구과제제외기준 (n = 329) 어휘처리이외의 language 과제어휘교수법어휘학습 연구결과제외기준 (n = 6) fmri eye tracking 결과수치불충분 출판형태제외기준 (n = 7) 학위논문단행본 < 그림 - 2> 연구선정절차 하였고, 어휘처리와관련된연구인만큼 Hyperlexia 를제외하였으며, 과제수행도에다른변인이영향을미칠수있음을고려하여 ADHD 및읽기장애가동반된 ASD 대상은제외하였다. (3) 연구과제는어휘처리능력을평가할수있는과제가아닌읽기이해과제및다른언어과제, 사회성, 감정등과관련된과제또는어휘회상, 어휘습득, 교수법과관련된과제는제외하였다. (4) 연구결과는어휘처리에대한반응시간, 단어재인정확도를측정한행동적인 (behavioral) 결과는포함하였으며, fmri분석이나 eye tracking 결과, 결과수치가불충분한자료는제외하였다. 연구의선정기준은다음 < 표 -1> 과같다. 정해진주제어를같은방식으로각각의데이터베 이스에입력함에따라 625개의논문을 1차적으로선택하였고, 선정기준에따라 611개가제외되어총 14개의논문이연구대상으로선정되었다. < 그림 -2> 에선정과정을순서도로제시하였다. 3. 자료의분석가. 자료의코딩메타분석을위해수집된연구들은연구자명, 출판년도, 연구대상의장애유형, 연구대상의수, 연구대상의연령, 어휘처리과제종류의순으로정리하였고, 어휘처리과제수행결과 ( 반응시간및정확도 ) 의통계값 (M, SD, t값, p값, F값 ) 으로분류하여코딩하였다. 277

5 언어청각장애연구 2012;17: 나. 연구의질적평가본연구에포함된논문들의질적평가를위해 Gersten et al. (2005) 의필수적인질지표 (Essential Quality Indicators) 를사용하여 3점척도 (1점: 부적절, 2점 : 불명확, 3점 : 적절 ) 로측정하였다. 연구대상 ( 정보, 무선할당 ), 과제 ( 구체적기술, 어휘처리와밀접한과제및복수측정 ), 결과 ( 연구문제가설과일관된분석 ) 의항목은 14개논문이모두적절한것으로평가되었다. 그러나과제충실도 (materials fidelity) 는 7개연구에서만제시되었고, 결과신뢰도측정은 2개연구에서만제시가되었다. 14개연구중 2개의논문은평균 3점, 12개논문은 2.75~2.88점으로평가되어모두논문의질적수준이적절한것으로평가되었다. 견오류 (publication bias error) 를알아보기위해 Funnel plot(< 그림 -3> 참조 ) 의형태를확인한후 Orwin(1983) 의안전계수 (fail-safe N) 공식을이용하여분석한결과, 분석대상논문들이동질그룹에속하나 publication bias를통제하기위해서는 10개정도의다른연구가필요한것으로나타났다. 즉, 본연구에서분석된논문들의효과크기값들의변량이적어나타난결과로추후연구에서는논문선정기준을다시설정하여분석해볼필요가있다. 계산공식에서 는안전계수, 는통합된연구들의평균효과크기 이고, 는알수있는가상적연구들이메타분석에추가되었을때효과크기와똑같이선정된기준을의미한다 ( 오성삼, 2002). 다. 신뢰도평가전체연구의약 10% 에해당하는문헌을무선적으로선택하여코딩하고, 효과크기를산출하여각항목별로일치한수의비율을측정한결과평가자간신뢰도는 100% 를나타내었다. 라. 메타분석 선정된연구의어휘처리과제를분석해본결과어휘판단과제 (lexical decision), 그림이름대기과제 (picture naming), 단어재인과제 (word recognition), 비단어읽기과제 (nonword reading) 의 4개항목을포함하였고, 어휘처리과제수행능력은반응시간 (response time), 정확도 (accuracy), 정반응수 (number of accurate) 의 3개유형으로분류되는것으로나타났다. < 부록 - 1> 에어휘처리과제와반응유형을요약하여제시하였다. 효과크기의산출은메타분석을위한통계프로그램인 CMA2 (Comprehensive Meta- Analysis 2, 2005) 프로그램을이용하였다. 두집단간평균이나평균차이값및표준편차값을사용하였고, 이자료값이없는경우 p값이나 t값을사용하였으며효과크기는 Hedges s 의 g를사용하여분석하였다. 평균효과크기는연구간의표본크기를고려한가중평균효과크기 (weight effect size) 를사용하였으며 95% 신뢰구간을기준으로효과크기의유의성을평가하였다. 통계적이질성유무를확인하기위해동질성검정을실시한결과통계적동질성이확보되지않아무선효과모형 (random effect model) 을사용하여메타분석을실시하였다. 출판편 < 그림 - 3> Funnel plot = N( - ) 14( ) = = Ⅲ. 연구결과 1. 질적분석가. 연구대상연구대상의연령은 5;8~26;1세의아동, 청소년및성인을대상으로하였으나 20세이상의성인을대상으로한연구는 2편에불과하였다. 연구대상의수는평균 19.9명 ( 범위 8~48명 ) 으로대부분 10~20명단위의연구가많았으며, 30명이상단위의연구가 2편, 10명미만연구가 2편있었다. 어휘처리양상을비교한 ASD 278

6 강민경외 / 메타분석을통한자폐범주성장애의어휘처리양상연구 집단의하위유형으로는고기능자폐 (High functioning autism disorder, n = 10), 아스퍼거증후군 (Asperger s syndrome, n=5), 자폐증 (Autism, n=3), 비전형성전반적발달장애 (PDD-NOS, n=1) 순으로나타났다 ( 한연구내에두개이상의하위유형을포함한연구는중복계산되었다 ). < 그림 -4> 에연구대상의유형에대해제시하였다. < 부록 -2> 에연구대상자정보를요약하여제시하였다. 나. 어휘처리과제 ASD 그룹의어휘처리양상을알아보기위한실험은한연구당평균 3.14개 ( 범위 1개~8개 ) 였고, 이는점화조건이나 ASD하위그룹별로나누어진행되었다. 어휘처리과제유형으로는단어재인과제가가장많았고 (word recognition; n = 22), 어휘판단과제 (lexical decision; n=20), 그림이름대기과제 (picture naming; n=6), 비단어읽기과제 (nonword naming; n=6) 로나타났다. 어휘처리과제유형을 < 그림 -5> 에제시하였다. < 그림 - 4> 연구대상의유형 < 그림 - 5> 어휘처리과제의유형 Study name Subgroup within study Outcome Statistics for each study Hedges's g and 95% CI Hedges's Lower Upper g limit limit Z-Value p-value Kamio et al(2007)1 visual 반응시간 Kamio et al(2007)2 visual 반응시간 Kamio et al(2007)3 visual 반응시간 Kamio et al(2007)4 visual 반응시간 Gaffery et al(2007) visual 반응시간 Dunn et al(2005)1 auditory 반응시간 Dunn et al(2005)2 auditory 반응시간 Brock et al(2008) visual 정확률 Walenski et al(2008)1 auditory 정확률 Walenski et a(2008)2 auditory 반응시간 Walenski et a(2008)3 auditory 정확률 Walenski et a(2008)4 auditory 반응시간 Toich(2001) visual 정확률 Nation(2006) visual 정확률 Gabig(2010)1 visual 정반응수 Gabig(2010)2 visual 정반응수 Gabig(2010)3 visual 정반응수 Gabig(2010)4 visual 정반응수 Henderson(2011) auditory 반응시간 Speirs(2011)1 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)2 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)3 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)4 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)5 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)6 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)7 visual 반응시간 Speris(2011)8 visual 반응시간 Speris(2011)9 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)10 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)11 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)12 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)13 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)14 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)15 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)16 visual 에러율 norbury(2005)1 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)2 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)3 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)4 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)5 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)6 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)7 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)8 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)9 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)10 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)11 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)12 visual 정반응수 ASD TD < 그림 - 6> ASD 그룹의어휘처리양상에대한메타분석 279

7 언어청각장애연구 2012;17: ASD 그룹과통제그룹의어휘처리과제수행차이비교 ASD 그룹과통제그룹의어휘처리과제의수행차이에대한메타분석결과는 < 그림 -6> 과같다. 효과크기의범위는 0.00~26.62이고, 가중평균효과크기의범위는 0.09~2.78에해당하는것으로나타났다. 효과크기는.14, p =.17, 신뢰구간 [-.06,.35] 의범위에서 ASD 그룹과통제그룹간의어휘처리수행능력에는차이가없는것으로나타났다. 어휘처리능력을 ASD 하위그룹별로나누어살펴보면 < 표 -2> 와같다. ASD 하위유형중자폐증의효과크기는 g =.118, p =.447, 95% 신뢰구간 [.186,.423] 에해당하였고, 아스퍼거증후군 + 고기능자폐의효과크기는 g =.017 p =.944, 95% 신뢰구간 [.441,.474] 에해당하였다. 또한고기능자폐의효과크기는 g =.248 p =.061, 95% 신뢰구간 [.011,.508] 에해당하였고, 아스퍼거증후군의효과크기는 g =.022 p =.849, 95% 신뢰구간 [.207,.251] 에해당하여통제그룹그룹의어휘처리능력과차이가없는것으로나타났다. 하지만아스퍼거증후군 + 비전형성발달장애 + 자폐증의효과크기는 g = 1.859, p =.00, 95% 신뢰구간 [.878, 2.839] 에해 당하여통제그룹그룹에비해어휘처리능력이낮은것으로나타났다. < 표 - 2> ASD 하위그룹별어휘처리능력의효과크기 하위그룹 효과크기 자폐증.118 아스퍼거증후군 + 고기능자폐.017 ASD 아스퍼거증후군 % 신뢰구간 p-value [ ] [.441,.474] [.207,.251] 아스퍼거증후군 + 비전형성발달장애 + 자폐증 [.878, 2.839] 고기능자폐.248 [.011,.508] 두가지자극제시조건 ( 시각 vs. 청각 ) 에서의그룹간어휘처리과제수행차이비교 ASD 그룹과통제그룹의자극제시방법에따른그룹간수행도의효과크기비교는 < 그림 -7>, < 그 Study name Subgroup within study Outcome Statistics for each study Hedges's g and 95% CI Hedges's Lower Upper g limit limit Z-Value p-value Kamio et al(2007)1 visual 반응시간 Kamio et al(2007)2 visual 반응시간 Kamio et al(2007)3 visual 반응시간 Kamio et al(2007)4 visual 반응시간 Gaffery et al(2007) visual 반응시간 Brock et al(2008) visual 정확률 Toich(2001) visual 정확률 Nation(2006) visual 정확률 Gabig(2010)1 visual 정반응수 Gabig(2010)2 visual 정반응수 Gabig(2010)3 visual 정반응수 Gabig(2010)4 visual 정반응수 Speirs(2011)1 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)2 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)3 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)4 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)5 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)6 visual 반응시간 Speirs(2011)7 visual 반응시간 Speris(2011)8 visual 반응시간 Speris(2011)9 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)10 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)11 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)12 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)13 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)14 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)15 visual 에러율 Speirs(2011)16 visual 에러율 frith et al.(1983)1 visual 정확률 frith et al.(1983)2 visual 정확률 frith et al.(1983)3 visual 정확률 frith et al.(1983)4 visual 반응시간 frith et al.(1983)5 visual 반응시간 frith et al.(1983)6 visual 반응시간 norbury(2011)1 visual 정반응수 norbury(2011)2 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)1 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)2 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)3 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)4 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)5 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)6 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)7 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)8 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)9 visual 반응시간 norbury(2005)10 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)11 visual 정반응수 norbury(2005)12 visual 정반응수 < 그림 - 7> 시각적자극제시조건에서의그룹간차이에대한메타분석 280

8 강민경외 / 메타분석을통한자폐범주성장애의어휘처리양상연구 Study name Subgroup within study Outcome Statistics for each study Hedges's g and 95% CI Lower Upper Hedges's g limit limit Z-Value p-value Dunn et al(2005)1 auditory 반응시간 Dunn et al(2005)2 auditory 반응시간 Walenski et al(2008)1 auditory 정확률 Walenski et a(2008)2 auditory 반응시간 Walenski et a(2008)3 auditory 정확률 Walenski et a(2008)4 auditory 반응시간 Henderson(2011) auditory 반응시간 ASD TD Meta Analysis < 그림 - 8> 청각적자극제시조건에서의그룹간차이에대한메타분석 림 -8> 과같다. 두가지자극제시방법에서의어휘처리과제수행도는 ASD와통제그룹간에차이가없는것으로나타났다. < 표 - 3> 두가지자극제시조건에서의그룹간효과크기 자극제시조건 효과크기 95% 신뢰구간 p-value 시각적자극.10 [.11.31].33 청각적자극.24 [ ].10 두가지자극제시조건에서의그룹간효과크기를살펴보면 < 표 -3> 과같다. 시각적자극제시조건의효과크기는 g =.10, p=.33, 95% 신뢰구간 [.11,.31] 에서그룹간수행능력의차이가없는것으로나타났으며, 청각적자극제시조건의효과크기는 g =.24, p=.10, 95% 신뢰구간 [-.05,.52] 에서그룹간수행능력의 차이가없는것으로나타났다. 4. 과제유형에따른그룹간어휘처리과제수행차이비교 과제유형별로 ASD 그룹의어휘처리과제수행을분석한결과는 < 표 -4> 와같다. 어휘판단과제, 그림이름대기과제, 단어재인과제, 비단어읽기과제에서의 ASD와일반그룹간의수행도차이는없는것으로나타났다. < 표 - 4> 과제유형별효과크기 과제유형 (n) 효과크기 95% 신뢰구간 p-value 어휘판단과제 (20).25 [.09,.59].16 그림이름대기과제 (6).34 [.02,.70].06 단어재인과제 (22) -.21 [-.45,.03].08 비단어읽기과제 (6).34 [-.21,.89].22 Ⅳ. 논의및결론 본연구는메타분석을통해 ASD 그룹의어휘처리능력을알아보기위해실시되어졌다. 이를위해 1983년부터 2011년까지이루어진연구가운데선정기준에따라총 14개의논문을선정하였고, ASD 그룹이통제그룹과비교하여어휘처리능력에차이가있는지, 어휘처리능력은두가지자극제시조건에서그룹간차이를보이는지, 또한과제유형에따라그룹간차이를보이는지에대해알아보았다. 연구의질적인분석결과는다음과같다. 첫째, ASD 그룹의어휘처리능력을살펴보는연구는 ASD하위유형중고기능자폐와아스퍼거증후군을대상으로가장많이이루어졌다. 이는 ASD 하위유형중위의두집단이상대적으로언어적인손상이가장적은유형에속하며, 이는어휘처리과제를실시할때언어발달지체에대한영향을최소화하기위한것으로보여진다. 또한어휘처리과제를이해하고수행하기위해서인지적인기능을고려했기때문인것으로생각된다. 두번째로어휘처리과제유형을살펴보면, 단어재인과제와어휘판단과제가대다수를차지했다. 이는시각적으로제시된단어를그대로읽거나시각, 또는청각적으로제시된단어가단어인지비단어 281

9 언어청각장애연구 2012;17: 인지를선택하도록하는과제로어휘처리양상을살펴보기위해가장많이사용되며, 과제수행절차도어렵지않아 ASD 그룹을대상으로실시할때적합한과제였을것이다. 메타분석결과첫째, ASD 그룹은통제그룹에비해어휘처리과제수행능력에차이가없는것으로나타났다. 이는특히분석에포함된연구들이대부분 ASD 하위유형중언어적인결함이상대적으로낮은고기능자폐와아스퍼거증후군을대상으로하였기때문인것으로보여진다. 각각의하위유형별로나누어집단간차이를비교해보았을때, 아스퍼거증후군, 비전형성발달장애, 자폐증을하나의그룹으로묶어연구를실시한경우에만통제그룹과어휘처리과제수행능력에차이를보이는것으로나타난점이이를뒷받침한다. 이러한결과는고기능자폐나아스퍼거증후군과같은기능이높은 ASD 그룹은언어능력이또래수준과통계적으로차이가없다는선행연구와일치하는것이다. 예를들어, 고기능자폐의경우또래에비해많은양의어휘를습득하고 (Jarrold, Boucher & Russell, 1997; Lord & Paul, 1997), 공식적인어휘검사 (Fein et al., 1996; Kjelgaard & Tager-Flusberg, 2001), 단단어재인과제와읽기정확도검사 (Minshew, Goldstein & Siegel, 1995; O connor & Klein, 2004) 에서생활연령에적합한수행수준을보인다고하였다. 또한아스퍼거증후군의경우에는 3세이전에언어적인결함이나타나야하는 ASD의진단기준이적용되지않는하위유형으로언어적인능력이또래수준과유사하거나더뛰어나다는보고도있다 (Saalasti et al., 2008; Speirs et al., 2011). 둘째, 두가지자극제시조건에서의 ASD 그룹과통제그룹의어휘처리수행도의차이는시각적자극조건및청각적자극조건모두에서차이가없는것으로나타났다. 이는 ASD 그룹이청각적자극에비해시각적인자극에대해더민감하게반응한다는선행연구 (Volkmar, Chawarska & Klin, 2005) 나, 통제그룹과는다르게선택적자극에반응한다는선행연구 (Schreibman, Koegel & Craig, 1977) 와는다른결과로볼수있다. 다시말해, ASD 그룹의자극제시조건에따른양상은통제그룹과차이가없었으며, 이는 ASD 그룹의자극반응형태가통제그룹과유사함을나타내는것이다. 셋째, ASD 그룹이어휘처리과제를수행할때과제유형에따라차이를보이는지알아보고자메타분석을실시한결과 ASD 그룹은통제그룹과비교하여과제유형에따른수행도차이를 나타내지않았다. ASD 그룹이단어재인과제, 어휘판단과제, 그림이름대기과제, 비단어읽기과제와같은어휘처리과제에서그룹간차이를보이지않은원인은첫째, 제시된어휘의형태에의한것이라고생각해볼수있다. 본연구에서이루어진대부분의어휘처리과제는제시된단어를읽거나말하는방식에해당한다. 단어의형태를기억해서읽는 ASD 그룹의읽기특성을고려했을때, 제시된단어를그대로읽거나판단하는것이어렵지않았을것이다 (Frith & Snowling, 1983). 하지만비단어읽기과제에서도두그룹간의차이를보이지않은것은 ASD 그룹이비단어를읽을때, 음운-철자변환을능숙하게수행하지못하여유사한조합의익숙한단어로바꾸어읽는다는선행연구결과를 (Frith & Snowling, 1983) 지지하지않는다. 하지만연구대상자들이 ASD 하위유형중비단어읽기과제에서통제그룹과의차이를보이지않는다고보고되었던고기능자폐와아스퍼거증후군이대부분이었기때문에이와같은결과가충분히도출될수있었던것같다. 본연구는무선할당된집단연구로서학술지에게재된연구만을선정하여단일대상으로하여사전사후비교집단연구나단일대상연구가제외되었으며, 학위논문도제외됨으로써선정된연구의수가적다. 또한어휘처리과제에대한수행력이결과로제시된연구만포함되고, fmri나 eye tracking 연구는제외됨으로써연구결과가편향되었을수있다. 이후연구에서는다양한과제유형을포괄적으로확대하고, 어휘처리뿐만아니라어휘습득양상에대한연구로확장해볼수있다. 본연구는 ASD 그룹의어휘처리과제수행도를메타분석을사용하여통제그룹과비교하였고, 그능력에서차이가없음을밝힘으로써임상에서보다적극적으로 ASD 그룹의읽기교육이이루어지기위한필요성에대해근거중심 (evidenced-based) 자료를제공하였다는것이중요한의의가될것이다. 참고문헌 김영태 (1999). 자폐아의말, 언어특성에관한고찰. 교육과학연구, 30(12), 오성삼 (2002). 선행연구결과의통합과재분석을위한메타분석의이론과실제. 서울 : 건국대학교출판부. Baron-Cohen, S. (1989). The autistic child s theory of mind: A case of specific developmental delay. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30(2),

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Rapin (Ed.), Preschool children with inadequate communication: Developmental language disorders, autism, low IQ, Clinics in developmental medicine (pp ). London, UK: Mac Keith Press. Forster, K. I., & Davis, C. (1984). Repetition priming and frequency attenuation in lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10(4), Frith, U., & Snowling, M. (1983). Reading for meaning and reading for sound in autistic and dyslexic children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1, Gabig, C. S. (2010). Phonological awareness and word recognition in reading by children with Autism, Communication Disorders Quarterly, 31(2), Gaffrey, M. S., Kleinhans, N. M., Haist, F., Akshoomoff, N., Campbell, A., Courchesne, E., & Muller, R. (2007). A typical participation of visual cortex during word processing in autism: An fmri study of semantic decision. Neuropsychologia, 45, Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Compton, D., Coyne, M., Greenwood, C., & Innocenti, M. S. (2005). Quality indicators for group experimental and quasi-experimental research in special education. Exceptional Children, 71(2), Heimann, M., Nelson, K. E., Tjus, T., & Gillberg, C. (1995). Increasing reading and communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(5), Henderson, L. M., Clarke, P.J., & Snowling, M.J. (2011). Accessing and selecting word meaning in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(9), Jarrold, C., Boucher, J., & Russell, J. (1997). Language profile on children with autism: Theoretical and methodological implications. Autism, 1, Kamio, Y., Robins, D., Kelley, E., Swainson, B., & Fein, D. (2007). Atypical lexical/semantic processing in highfunctioning autism spectrum disorders without early language delay. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, Kjelgaard, M. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). An investigation of language impairment in autism: Implications for genetic subgroups. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16(2-3), Lord, C., & Paul, R. (1997). Language and communication in autism, In D. J. Cohen & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.). Handbook of autism and pervasive development disorders (2nd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. McCleery, J. P., Ceponiene, R., Burner, K. M., Townsend, J., Kinnear, M., & Schreibman, L. (2010). Neural correlates of verbal and nonverbal semantic integration in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(3), Minshew, N. J., Goldstein, G., & Siegel, D. J. (1995). Speech and language in high-functioning autistic individuals. Neuropsychology, 9(2), Nation, K., Clarke, P., Wright, B., & Williams, C. (2006). Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, Norbury, C. F.(2005). Barking up the wrong tree? Lexical ambiguity resolution in children with language impairments and autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 90, Norbury, C. F., & Nation, K. (2011). Understanding variability in reading comprehension in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: Interactions with language status and decoding skill. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(3), O connor, I. M., & Klein, P. D. (2004). Exploration of strategies for facilitating the reading comprehension of highfunctioning students with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), O Malley, S., & Besner, D. (2011). Lexical processing while deciding what task to preform: Reading aloud in the context of the task set paradigm. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), Orwin, R. (1983). A fail-safe N for effect size in meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Statistics, 8, Patterson, K., Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). Connections and disconnections: Acquired dyslexia in a computational model of reading processes. New York, NY: Clarendon Press. Pinker, S. (1990). Natural selection and natural language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13(4), Pratarelli, M. E., & McIntyre, J. A. (1994). Effects of social loafing on word recognition. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, Saalasti, S., Lepisto, T., Toppila, E., Laaksto, M., Wendt, T. N., Wendt, L., & Jansson-Verkasalo, E. (2008). Language Abilities of Children with Asperger Syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), Schreibman, L., Koegel, R. L., & Craig, M. S. (1977). Reducing stimulus overselectivity in autistic children. Journal of Abnormal child Psychology, 5,

11 언어청각장애연구 2012;17: Speirs, S., Yelland, G., Rinehart, N., & Tonge, B. (2011), Lexical processing in individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger s disorder. Autism, 15(3), Tager-Flusberg, H. (1997). Language acquisition and theory of mind: Contributions from the study of autism. In L. B. Adamson & M. A. Romski (Eds.), Research on communication and language disorder: Contributions to theories of language development. Baltimore. MD: Paul Brookes Publishing Tager-Flusberg, H., & Calkins, S. (1990). Does imitation facilitate the acquisition of grammar? Evidence from a study of autistic, Down s syndrome and normal children. Journal of child Language, 17, Toichi, M., & Kamio, Y. (2001). Verbal association for simple common words in high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(5), Volkmar, F., Chawarska, K., & Klin, A. (2005). Autism in infancy and early childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, Walenski, M., Mostofsky, S. H., Gidley-Larson, J. C., & Ullman, M. T. (2008). Brief report: Enhanced picture naming in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(1), Wetherby, A. M. (1986). Ontogeny of communicative functions in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 16(3), Yelland, N. J. (1994). The strategies and interactions of young children in LOGO tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 10(1),

12 강민경외 / 메타분석을통한자폐범주성장애의어휘처리양상연구 < 부록 - 1> 어휘처리과제와반응유형 연구과제자극제시조건결과 Brock et al. (2008) 어휘판단과제시각정확률 Dunn & Bates(2005): 세그룹어휘판단과제청각반응시간 Frith & Snowling (1983) 어휘재인과제시각정확률 Gabig (2010) 어휘판단과제, 비단어읽기과제 시각 정반응수 Gaffrey et al. (2007) 어휘판단과제 시각 반응시간 Henderson (2011) 그림이름대기과제청각반응시간 Kamio et al. (2007) 어휘판단과제시각반응시간 McCleery et al. (2010) 그림이름대기과제시청각 N400 효과점수 Nation (2006) 비단어읽기과제시각정확률 Norbury (2005) 어휘판단과제시각반응시간 Norbury & Nation (2011) 비단어읽기과제시각정반응수 Speirs (2011) 어휘재인과제시각정확률 Toichi & Kamio (2001) 그림이름대기과제시각정확률 Walenski et al. (2008) 그림이름대기과제시각반응시간 285

13 언어청각장애연구 2012;17: < 부록 - 2> 연구대상자의특성 연구 진단명 평균연령 ( 세 ) 연구대상수 ( 명 ) 실험집단비교집단실험집단비교집단 Brock et al. (2008) HFA a) Dunn et al.(2005): 세그룹 HFA Dunn et al.(2005): 8 9 세그룹 HFA Frith et al. (1983) Autism Gabig (2010) HFA Gaffrey et al. (2007) HFA Henderson (2011) Autism Kamio et al. (2007) AS b) +HFA McCleery et al. (2010) HFA Nation (2006) Autism+ PDD-NOS+AS Norbury (2005) HFA Norbury (2011): 1 HFA Norbury (2011): 2 AS Speirs (2011) HFA+AS Toichi (2001) HFA Walenski et al. (2008) HFA (boy) Walenski et al. (2008) HFA (girl) a) HFA: High Functioning Autism b) AS: Asperger s syndrome c) PDD-NOS: Pervasive Development Disorder not otherwise specified 286

14 Kang et al. / A Meta-Analysis of Lexical Processing in Groups with Autism Spectrum Disorders ABSTRACT A Meta-Analysis of Lexical Processing in Groups with Autism Spectrum Disorders Minkyung Kang a Soobok Lee a,b Young Tae Kim a, Dongsun Yim a a Department of Communication Disorders, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea b Shin s Speech-Langeage clinic, Seoul, Korea Correspondence to Prof. Young Tae Kim, PhD, Department of Communication Disorders, Ewha Womans University, 11-1, Daehyun-dong, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea youngtae@ewha.ac.kr tel.: Background & Objectives: The lexical processing of groups with Autism spectrum disorders(asd) has specificity in comparisonto their other language skill. Therefore, it is difficult to obtain consistent results for lexical processing in groups with ASD. The results can vary depending on the subgroups of ASD, stimuli modes, and task types. The purpose of this meta-analysis study was to systematically investigate the results of previous studies on the lexical processing ability in groups with ASD. Methods: Using Meta-Analysis(CMA2, Comprehensive Meta-Analysis-Ⅱ, 2005), a systematic literature review approach was taken. There were 14 studies which met the inclusive and exclusive criteria of our research. The effect sizes for ASDs and overall typical developmental(td) abilities for lexical processing were analyzed via a random effect model. Results: The results of this study revealed that word recognition and lexical decisions were the most commonly used tasks. In addition, the general target populations for lexical processing were high functioning autism(hfa) and Asperger s syndrome(as). There were three main findings from our study results. First, the meta-analysis results indicated that the overall lexical processing abilities were not significantly different between ASD and TD. Second, there were no significant differences in the results based on stimuli modes. Lastly, there were no significant differences in the results depending on the task types. Discussion & Conclusion: Our findings suggest that there was not a significant difference between the ASD s and TD s overall lexical processing abilities. Therefore, the results should provide an evidence-based rationale for the ASD group s vocabulary intervention. (Korean Journal of Communication Disorders 2012;17: ) Key Words: lexical processing, ASD, word recognition, lexical decision, picture naming REFERENCES Baron-Cohen, S. (1989). The autistic child s theory of mind: A case of specific developmental delay. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30(2), Bradley, D. C., & Forster, K. I. (1987). A reader s view of listening. Cognition, 25(1), Brock, J., Norbury, C., Einav, S., & Nation, K. (2008). Do individuals with autism process words in context? Evidence from language-mediated eye-movements. Cognition, 108, Coltheart, M. (2006). Dual route and connectionist models of reading: An overview. London Review of Education, 4(1), Dunn, M. A., & Bates, J. A. (2005). Developmental change in neutral processing of words by children with Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(3), Ellis, R. (1984). Classroom second language development: A study of classroom interaction and language acquisition. NewYork, NY: Pergamon Press. Fein, D., Dunn, M., Allen, E. A., Aram, D. M, Hall, N., Morris, R., & Wilson, B. C. (1996). Neuropsychological & language data. In Ⅰ. Rapin (Ed.), Preschool children with inadequate communication: Developmental language disorders, autism, low IQ, Clinics in developmental medicine (pp ). London, UK: Mac Keith Press. Forster, K. I., & Davis, C. (1984). Repetition priming and frequency attenuation in lexical access. Journal of Experi- * The work was supporoted by the Ewha Top 5 Grant 2011 of Ewha Womans University. Received April 19, 2012 Final revision received May 30, 2012 Accepted June 5, c 2012 The Korean Academy of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology 287

15 Korean Journal of Communication Disorders 2012;17: mental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10(4), Frith, U., & Snowling, M. (1983). Reading for meaning and reading for sound in autistic and dyslexic children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1, Gabig, C. S. (2010). Phonological awareness and word recognition in reading by children with Autism, Communication Disorders Quarterly, 31(2), Gaffrey, M. S., Kleinhans, N. M., Haist, F., Akshoomoff, N., Campbell, A., Courchesne, E., & Muller, R. (2007). A typical participation of visual cortex during word processing in autism: An fmri study of semantic decision. Neuropsychologia, 45, Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Compton, D., Coyne, M., Greenwood, C., & Innocenti, M. S. (2005). Quality indicators for group experimental and quasi-experimental research in special education. Exceptional Children, 71(2), Heimann, M., Nelson, K. E., Tjus, T., & Gillberg, C. (1995). Increasing reading and communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(5), Henderson, L. M., Clarke, P.J., & Snowling, M.J. (2011). Accessing and selecting word meaning in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(9), Jarrold, C., Boucher, J., & Russell, J. (1997). Language profile on children with autism: Theoretical and methodological implications. Autism, 1, Kamio, Y., Robins, D., Kelley, E., Swainson, B., & Fein, D. (2007). Atypical lexical/semantic processing in highfunctioning autism spectrum disorders without early language delay. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, Kim, Y. (1999). The speech-language characteristics of the autistic children. Ewha Journal of Educational Research, 30(12), Kjelgaard, M. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). An investigation of language impairment in autism: Implications for genetic subgroups. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16(2-3), Lord, C., & Paul, R. (1997). Language and communication in autism, In D. J. Cohen & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.). Handbook of autism and pervasive development disorders (2nd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. McCleery, J. P., Ceponiene, R., Burner, K. M., Townsend, J., Kinnear, M., & Schreibman, L. (2010). Neural correlates of verbal and nonverbal semantic integration in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(3), Minshew, N. J., Goldstein, G., & Siegel, D. J. (1995). Speech and language in high-functioning autistic individuals. Neuropsychology, 9(2), Nation, K., Clarke, P., Wright, B., & Williams, C. (2006). Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, Norbury, C. F.(2005). Barking up the wrong tree? Lexical ambiguity resolution in children with language impairments and autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 90, Norbury, C. F., & Nation, K. (2011). Understanding variability in reading comprehension in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: Interactions with language status and decoding skill. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(3), O connor, I. M., & Klein, P. D. (2004). Exploration of strategies for facilitating the reading comprehension of highfunctioning students with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), O Malley, S., & Besner, D. (2011). Lexical processing while deciding what task to preform: Reading aloud in the context of the task set paradigm. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), Oh, S. S. (2002). Meta-analysis: Theory and practice. Seoul: Konkuk University Publication. Orwin, R. (1983). A fail-safe N for effect size in meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Statistics, 8, Patterson, K., Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). Connections and disconnections: Acquired dyslexia in a computational model of reading processes. New York, NY: Clarendon Press. Pinker, S. (1990). Natural selection and natural language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13(4), Pratarelli, M. E., & McIntyre, J. A. (1994). Effects of social loafing on word recognition. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, Saalasti, S., Lepisto, T., Toppila, E., Laaksto, M., Wendt, T. N., Wendt, L., & Jansson-Verkasalo, E. (2008). Language Abilities of Children with Asperger Syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), Schreibman, L., Koegel, R. L., & Craig, M. S. (1977). Reducing stimulus overselectivity in autistic children. Journal of Abnormal child Psychology, 5, Speirs, S., Yelland, G., Rinehart, N., & Tonge, B. (2011), Lexical processing in individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger s disorder. Autism, 15(3), Tager-Flusberg, H. (1997). Language acquisition and theory of mind: Contributions from the study of autism. In L. B. Adamson & M. A. Romski (Eds.), Research on communication and language disorder: Contributions to theories of language development. Baltimore. MD: Paul Brookes Publishing Tager-Flusberg, H., & Calkins, S. (1990). Does imitation facilitate the acquisition of grammar? Evidence from a study of autistic, Down s syndrome and normal children. Journal of child Language, 17, Toichi, M., & Kamio, Y. (2001). Verbal association for simple common words in high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(5), Volkmar, F., Chawarska, K., & Klin, A. (2005). Autism in infancy and early childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 56,

16 Kang et al. / A Meta-Analysis of Lexical Processing in Groups with Autism Spectrum Disorders Walenski, M., Mostofsky, S. H., Gidley-Larson, J. C., & Ullman, M. T. (2008). Brief report: Enhanced picture naming in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(1), Wetherby, A. M. (1986). Ontogeny of communicative functions in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 16(3), Yelland, N. J. (1994). The strategies and interactions of young children in LOGO tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 10(1),

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