ISSN (Online) Commun Sci Disord 2016;21(4): Original Article A Confirmatory Factor Analysis on Rea
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1 ISSN (Online) Commun Sci Disord 2016;21(4): Original Article A Confirmatory Factor Analysis on Reading Constructs across Ages Ae Hwa Kim a, Ui Jung Kim b, Eun Young Kang c a Department of Special Education, Dankook University, Yongin, Korea b Department of Special Education, Korea Nazarene University, Cheonan, Korea c Graduate School of Education, Yongin University, Yongin, Korea Correspondence: Ui Jung Kim, PhD Department of Special Education, Korea Nazarene University, 48 Wolbong-ro, Seobuk-gu, Cheonan 31172, Korea Tel: Fax: uijungkim@kornu.ac.kr Received: October 5, 2016 Revised: November 9, 2016 Accepted: November 23, 2016 Objectives: Our major goal in this study was to figure out a factor structure of reading as a construct. We were especially interested in how comparable the results would be across ages (grades). Methods: To find out how reading constructs change with increasing age, we used two confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) across ages (grades) using word recognition, reading fluency, and reading comprehension, which are generally understood as the three main factors of reading constructs. Results: The CFA targeted a whole participant regardless of age (grade); a three-factor reading construct model (separate word recognition, reading fluency, reading comprehension) represented the best fit. However, a two-factor reading construct model (word recognition and reading fluency combined, reading comprehension separate) showed the best fit at the preschool stage while the three-factor model was the best fit for the elementary level (grade 1 to grade 6). Conclusion: According to the results, different reading constructs should be considered in preschool and in elementary school. Also, reading fluency should be a distinct factor within reading constructs in first grade. Keywords: Word recognition, Reading fluency, Reading comprehension, Confirmatory factor analysis, Reading structure 지난수십년간복잡한인지적인과정이요구되는읽기 (reading) 를이해해보고자하는많은노력들이있어왔으며, 읽기구조 (reading construct) 에대한연구도이러한노력의일환으로실시되었다. 읽기구조를탐색한초기의많은선행연구들에서는단어인지 (word recognition) 와읽기이해 (reading comprehension) 를읽기구조를구성하는대표적인두개의하위요인이라고설명하였다 ( 예 : Carr & Levy, 1990; Gough & Tunmer, 1986). 이당시, 읽기유창성 (reading fluency) 의어려움은비효과적인음운처리로인한음독및단어인지문제에그원인이있다고여겼다 (Lyon & Moats, 1997). 따라서읽기구조에대한초기연구들에서는 유창성 을단어인지의자동화 (automaticity) 로보고, 유창성이단어인지요인에포함되는것으로간주하였다 (Gough, 2002; Hoover & Gough, 1990). 이와같이읽기구조에대한초기연구들에서주목한 유창성 은단어인지의자동화를강조한개별단어수준에서의유창성이었다. 그에비해 National Reading Panel (2000) 등의보고서가발표된 2000년대를전후로하여강조된 유창성 의개념은글 (text) 수준에서의유창성으로, 개별단어수준에서의유창성과는차별화되었다. 이들간의차이점을살펴보면, 유창성을어떻게조작적으로정의하고어떤수준에서의유창성에초점을맞추느냐에따라두가지유형의유창성으로나뉘는것을알수있다. 첫째, 개별단어수준에서의유창성은 효율적인단어인지 (efficient word recognition), 즉단어를빠르게, 정확하게읽는것 (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) 에초점을맞춘 유창성 개념이다 (Gough, 2002). 둘째, 글수준에서의유창성은글을읽을때의 속도, 정확성, 적절한표현 으로정의하면서, 글수준에서의초점을맞춘 유창성 개념이다 (National Reading Panel, 2000). 개별단어수준의유창성과글수준에서의유창성은빠르고정확하게읽는것 ( 즉, 정확성과속도 ) 이라는공통적인특징을지닌다. 하지만, 첫번째유형의유창성은개별단어읽기의 Copyright 2016 Korean Academy of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited
2 Ae Hwa Kim, et al. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis on Reading Constructs across Ages 정확성과속도로 효율적인단어인지 (efficient word recognition) 또는 단어인지의자동화 (automaticity) 이고, 두번째유형의유창성은글읽기의속도와정확성을의미하며 읽기유창성 (reading fluency) 를의미한다는측면에서차별화된다. 여러연구들에따르면, 개별단어를유창하게읽는단어인지유창성과글을유창하게읽는읽기유창성은서로구분되는요인임이보고되었다 (Berninger, Abbott, Billingsley, & Nagy, 2001; Breznitz, 2006; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001; Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001). 또한 National Reading Panel (2000) 등의보고서에강조한유창성의개념은글수준에서의읽기유창성으로, 읽기유창성이읽기의궁극적인목적인읽기이해에중요한영향을미친다는점에주목하였다. 이와같이글수준에서의읽기유창성의개념이강조되면서, 기존의읽기구조 ( 단어인지와읽기이해로구성된읽기구조 ) 에대한의문이제기되었다. 이에일련의연구들에서읽기유창성이단어인지와읽기이해이외에읽기의구조를구성하는독립적인하위요인인지를살펴보는연구들이발표되었으며, 더나아가학년에따라읽기의구조가차별적으로나타나는지에주목하였다. Geva와 Farnia (2012) 는초등학교 2학년과 5학년을대상으로실시한연구에서초등학교 2학년학생에게는단어인지와읽기유창성이단일요인으로나타났지만, 5학년학생에게는단어인지와읽기유창성이구분되는요인으로나타났다고보고하였다. 이와비슷하게 Wood (2006) 는초등학교 3학년과 4학년을대상으로실시한연구에서초등학교 3학년의경우읽기유창성과읽기이해가유의한관련성을지니지않는것으로나타난반면, 초등학교 4학년의경우에는읽기유창성과읽기이해가유의한관련성을지니는것으로나타났다. 이러한결과를지적하면서 Wood (2006) 는향후읽기유창성과읽기이해의관련성이읽기발달단계에따라어떠한양상으로나타나는지를연구할필요가있음을제안하였다. 또한 Tilstra, McMaster, Van den Broek, Kendeou와 Rapp (2009) 은 4학년, 7학년, 9학년을대상으로실시한연구에서모든학년에서읽기유창성이단어인지와는별도로읽기이해와유의한관련성을지녔음을보고하면서, 단어인지와읽기이해로구성된기존의읽기구조의한계점을지적하였다. 이상의선행연구들을살펴보면, 초등학교저학년에는읽기유창성이읽기구조를구성하는독립적인요인으로나타나지않지만, 초등학교고학년에는읽기유창성이독립적인요인으로나타나는것을알수있다. 즉, 초등학교저학년때는단어인지와읽기유창성이단일요인으로나타나다가, 초등학교고학년으로올라가면서단어인지와읽기유창성이두개의별개요인으로나뉘면서읽기유창성역시제3의별개하위요인으로서의유의한설명량을가지고있음이확인된바있다. 초등학교고학년이되면읽기유창성이독립 적인요인으로분화되는결과에대한이론적근거는 Chall (1983) 이제안한읽기발달단계에서찾아볼수있다. Chall (1983) 이제안한 6단계읽기발달을살펴보면다음과같다. 첫째, 태어나서부터 6 세까지의읽기전단계 (stage 0) 에서는책에대한경험을통해몇몇주변단어를통단어로획득하게된다. 둘째, 초등학교 1학년 2학년의경우는초기읽기단계 (stage 1) 이며, 낱자의소리와철자체계에대한학습을하는시기이다. 셋째, 초등학교 2학년 3학년에해당하는 2단계 (stage 2) 는단어읽기의유창성을발달시키는시기이다. 넷째, 4학년부터중학교까지에해당하는 3단계 (stage 3) 는 읽기를위한학습 에서 학습하기위한읽기 로의전환이일어나는시기이다. 다섯째, 4단계 (stage 4) 와 5단계 (stage 5) 는각각고등학교시기와성인기로다양한목적에맞는다양한읽기를하는시기이다. Chall (1983) 이제안한읽기발달단계를살펴보면, 초등학교취학전기간인 stage 0부터 stage 2까지는개별단어 읽기의학습 과자동화에초점이맞추어진단계라고할수있다. 그에비해초등학교 4학년을기점으로시작되는 stage 3부터는개별단어읽기의학습이아닌, 학습을위한읽기 가시작되는단계이며, 학습을위한읽기를수행하기위해서는 글 을유창하게읽는능력이요구되는시기라고할수있다. 이와관련하여 Silverman, Speech, Harring과 Ritchey (2013) 는초등학교고학년이시작되는 4학년을기점으로많은학생들이읽기에어려움을나타내는것과관련하여, 이시기부터는단어인지와읽기이해만으로이들의읽기에대한어려움을설명하는것은불충분하다는점을강조하면서, 읽기유창성이별개의요인으로고려되어야함을주장하였다. 따라서국내에서도읽기발달단계에따라읽기구조가차별적으로나타나는지 ( 즉, 읽기발달단계에따라단어인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해가읽기구조를구성하는독립적인요인이라는차별적특징이존재하는지 ) 를살펴보는것은의의가있다고할수있다. 국내의경우, 읽기유창성과읽기이해와의관련성을살펴본연구는수편보고된바있지만 (Kim, Kim, Yoo, & Hwang, 2011; Lee & Kim, 2003), 읽기유창성이읽기구조를구성하는독립적인요인인지, 더나아가서읽기의하위요인구조는읽기발달단계에따라어떠한양상으로나타는지를직접적으로살펴본연구는발표된바가없다. 위에서언급한국외선행문헌에서와비슷하게읽기발달단계에따라읽기유창성이분화되는지, 그리고읽기유창성이독립적인요인으로분화되는시점이국외에서와비슷한시기인지등을살펴본연구는이루어지지않았다. 한글은일반적으로표층표기체계언어권에속하는것으로평가되고 (Seymour, Aro, & Erskine, 2003), 표층표기체계언어권에서는단어인지정확성이초등학교저학년때이미천정효과를나타낸다고보고된바있다 (Cossu, Giuliotta, 632
3 확인적요인분석을활용한연령별읽기구조에대한연구 김애화외 & Marshall, 1995; Landerl & Wimmer, 2008). 따라서표층표기체 계언어권에속하는한글을사용하는아동을대상으로연령에따 른읽기구조를살펴보는것은의의가있는일이라고하겠다. 따라 서본연구에서는읽기발달이시작되는만 5 세아동부터초등학교 6 학년학생을대상으로읽기구조를살펴봄으로써, 읽기발달단계 에따른읽기구조가연령이증가하면서얼마나일관성있게또는 차별적으로나타나는지를살펴보고자하였다. 본연구에서만 5 세 아동부터연구대상에포함한이유는다음과같다. 최근발표된 Kim 과 Kim (2015) 의연구에서만 5 세아동의단어인지정확도는평균 약 10% ( 범위 : 1%-20%), 만 6 세아동의단어인지정확도는약 70% ( 범위 : 40%-91%) 로나타났다. 이러한데이터에따르면, 국내아동 들은만 5 세부터단어읽기성취도가발달되기시작하는것으로보 는것이적절한것으로판단하여만 5 세부터연구대상에포함하여 연구를실시하였다. 따라서본연구에서는한글을사용하는국내 아동들을대상으로읽기구조가어떠한지를살펴보고, 더나아가 읽기구조가읽기발달단계에따라어떠한양상을보이는지를살 펴보고자하였다. 본연구의구체적인연구문제는다음과같다. 연구문제 1. 읽기유창성은단어인지, 읽기이해와구분되어읽기 구조를설명하는별개의하위요인인가? 연구문제 2. 읽기구조는연령별 ( 학년별 ) 로어떠한양상을보이 는가? 연구방법 검사대상 본연구에는여섯개의유치원및세개의초등학교에재학중인 만 5 세부터초등학교 6 학년까지총 522 명의학생들이참여하였다. 만 5 세학생 32 명, 만 6 세학생 45 명이참여하였고, 1 학년 72 명, 2 학 년 70 명, 3 학년 80 명, 4 학년 70 명, 5 학년 76 명, 그리고 6 학년 77 명이 각각연구에참여하였다 (Table 1). 각종검사는 2009 년 4 월부터 2010 년 2 월까지 10 개월동안해당학생이소속된유치원및초등학교의 조용한공간에서개별적으로실시되었다. Table 1. Participants characteristics School level Age/grade N Kindergarten 5-year-old 6-year-old Elementary Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 검사도구단어인지검사 40개의단어가한세트로구성된 5개유형의단어인지하위검사를실시하였다. 각하위검사는고빈도음운변동의미단어 ( 예 : 목요일, 같이 ), 저빈도규칙의미단어 ( 예 : 변질되다, 관념 ), 저빈도음운변동의미단어 ( 예 : 속박하다, 단련된 ), 무의미규칙단어 ( 예 : 모류하다, 포순 ), 그리고무의미음운변동단어 ( 예 : 뭅다, 개즘앓이 ) 로구성되었다 (Appendix 1). 학생에게주어진단어를읽도록하였고, 정확하게읽은경우 1점, 그렇지않으면 0점으로채점하여총점은각세트별 40점으로점수를산출하였다. 단어인지검사의내적일관성지수 (Cronbach α 계수 ) 는.943으로나타났다. 읽기유창성검사연구자가개발한검사로가독성 (readability), 어휘친숙도, 선행지식통제등을고려하여각연령별전래동화지문을개발한후, 학생이 1분동안빠르게소리내어읽도록하여읽기유창성을측정하였다 (Appendix 2). 1분동안읽은전체어절수에서정확하게읽지않은어절수를빼서읽기유창성점수를계산하였다. 읽기이해검사이야기글읽기이해검사읽기유창성검사와동일한지문을활용하여읽기이해검사를실시하였다 (Appendix 2). 학생이전래동화를읽고물음에답하는형식으로이루어졌다. 읽기이해문항은인물이나배경에대한간단한내용지식을묻는문항, 사건에대한이해지식을묻는문항, 지문의내용을바탕으로추론하는문항등총 7문항으로구성하였다. 읽기이해검사의내적일관성지수 (Cronbach α 계수 ) 는.815로나타났으며, KISE 기초학력검사 -짧은글이해검사와의상관으로산출한공인타당도는.581로양호하게나타났다. KISE 기초학력검사 (KISE-BAAT)-짧은글이해검사표준화검사인 KISE-BAAT (Park, Kim, Song, Jung, & Jung, 2008) 중, 짧은글이해소검사를실시하여읽기이해력을측정하였다. KISE- BAAT- 짧은글이해검사는문장을읽고주요사실에답하기, 사실과느낌, 의견구분하기, 비유나상징적표현이해하기, 설명글을읽고중심내용파악하기, 결과유추하기, 비판하기등 30문항으로구성되어있다. 검사는시간제한없이실시되었으며, 연속적으로 5문항에대해오반응을하면이를중지점으로보아검사를종료하였다. KISE-BAAT-짧은글이해검사는총 30점만점으로구성되어있다. KISE-BAAT- 짧은글이해검사의내적일관성지수 (Cron
4 Ae Hwa Kim, et al. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis on Reading Constructs across Ages bach α 계수 ) 는.810으로나타났다. 확인적요인분석 (Confirmatory Factor Analysis, CFA) 본연구에서는읽기구조에관한세가지가설중어떠한요인구조가읽기구조를설명하는데가장적합한지알아보고, 연령별로차별적특징이존재하는지살펴보기위해 AMOS v21.0 프로그램을사용하여확인적요인분석을실시하였다. 가설1: 단어인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해가각각별개요인가설2: 읽기유창성은단어인지와같은요인, 읽기이해는별개요인가설3: 단어인지는별개요인, 읽기이해와읽기유창성은같은요인본연구에서는유창성요인의잠재변수 (latent variable) 에대한측정변수 (observed variable) 가한개인관계로, 신뢰도값의추정치를.8로간주하며,.8의제곱근의값인.8944를잠재변수와측정변수간경로의분산에지정하였다. 또한, 1-신뢰도값인.2를측정변수의오차항의분산에지정한후, 결과를분석하였다 (Woo, 2012). 모형의해석및적합도검증을위한기준으로 χ 2 과표준카이자승 (normed chi-square, NC) 을사용하고, 절대적합지수 RMSEA를활용하며, 증분적합지수의 NFI, TLI 및 CFI를활용하였다. χ 2 은표본의크기에민감하고표본의크기가커질수록부적합하게나타날수있으므로, NC값을추가적으로살펴보았고, NC값이얼마가되어야모델이적합한것으로판단할수있는지에대한명확한기준은없으며, 일반적으로 NC< 3.0이면양호한것으로판단한다 (Wheaton, Muthen, Alwin, & Summers, 1977; as cited in Kim, 2010). 또한, 전체표본수에민감하지않은 TLI (NNFI) 를보조지표로활용하였다. RMSEA는.1보다작을수록, NFI, TLI 및 CFI는 1에가까울수록모형적합도 (model fit) 가좋다고해석할수있으며,.9보다큰경우아주좋은모형적합도로설명할수있다 (Moon, 2009). 전체다섯가지지표중에서가장좋은적합도기준에충족하는지표가많을수록해당연령혹은학년의읽기구조를나타내는적절한가설로해석하였다. 연구결과기술통계학년별검사도구측정결과에대한기술통계결과 (descriptive analysis) 는 Tables 2-4와같다. 또한본연구에사용된소검사에대하여확인적요인분석을실행하기에앞서정규분포에대한가정을검증하기위하여첨도와왜도를검토하였다. 변인간의다중공선성이존재하는지를살펴본결과 VIF값이 4를넘지않는것으로나타 Table 2. Descriptive analysis on word recognition test across ages/grades Age/grade 5-year-old (N= 32) 6-year-old (N= 45) Grade 1 (N= 72) Grade 2 (N= 70) Grade 3 (N= 80) Grade 4 (N= 70) Grade 5 (N= 76) Grade 6 (N= 77) Word recognition test Mean SD Min. Max , 나다중공선성에는문제가없는것으로나타났다. Table 2 에는단어인지검사에대한연령및학년별평균, 표준편 차, 최소값과최대값이제시되었다. 만 5 세의경우, 단어인지검사별 평균점수는 점에서 점으로나타났고, 만 6 세의경우 에서 점으로나타났다. 초등학교 1 학년부터 6 학년까지 634
5 확인적요인분석을활용한연령별읽기구조에대한연구 김애화외 Table 3. Descriptive analysis on reading fluency test across ages/grades Age/grade Mean SD Min. Max. 5-year-old year-old Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Table 4. Descriptive analysis on reading comprehension test across ages/grades Age/grade 의단어인지검사의평균점수는각각 21.6 점 점, 24.5 점 점, 점 점, 점 점, 점 점, 점 점으로나타났다. Reading comprehension test 또한, Table 3 에는읽기유창성검사에대한연령및학년별평균, 표준편차, 최소값과최대값을각각제시하였다. 유창성검사결과, 만 5 세의경우유창성검사점수의평균이 어절로나타났 고, 만 6 세의경우 어절, 1 학년 어절, 2 학년 어 절, 3 학년 어절, 4 학년 어절, 5 학년 어절, 그리 고 6 학년 어절로나타났다. Mean SD Min. Max. 5-year-old Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT year-old Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT Grade 1 Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT Grade 2 Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT Grade 3 Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT Grade 4 Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT Grade 5 Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT Grade 6 Researcher-developed KISE-BAAT KISE-BAAT=Korea Institute for Special Education-Basic Academic Achievement Test. Table 4 에는연구자가개발한읽기이해검사인전래동화검사와 표준화검사인 KISE-BAAT 의연령별 ( 학년별 ) 평균과표준편차, 최 소값과최대값을제시하였다. 만 5 세는전래동화검사에서평균 점, KISE-BAAT 에서평균 점을나타냈고, 만 6 세는전래 동화검사에서평균 점, KISE-BAAT 에서평균 점을나 Table 5. Result of confirmatory factor analysis across hypothesis Hypothesis χ 2 χ 2 /df NFI TLI CFI RMSEA Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Bold indicates the best-fitting model. NFI= normal fit index; TLI= TuckerLewis index; CFI= goodness-of-fit index; RMSEA= root mean square error of approximation. 타냈다. 1 학년의전래동화검사와 KISE-BAAT 검사의평균은각각 점, 점, 2 학년의경우각각 점, 점, 3 학년의경우 각각 점, 점, 4 학년의경우 점, 점으로나타 났다. 5 학년은전래동화검사에서평균 점, KISE-BAAT 에서 평균 점, 6 학년의경우전래동화검사에서평균 점, KISE- BAAT 에서평균 점으로나타났다. 전체확인적요인분석결과 만 5 세부터초등학교 6 학년까지총 522 명을대상으로세가지가 설에대한확인적요인분석을실시한결과는 Table 5 와같다. 단어 인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해가각각개별요인이라는가설 1 이가장 적합한모델로나타났다 (χ 2 =13.389, NFI=.996, TLI=.996, CFI=.999, RMSEA=.030). 연령별확인적요인분석결과 연령별로읽기유창성이별개의요인으로읽기를설명하는지를 살펴본결과는 Table 6 과같다. 만 5 세와만 6 세는읽기유창성이단 어인지와하나의요인으로묶이는가설 2 가가장좋은모델인것으 로나타났다 ( 만 5 세 : χ 2 = , NFI=.932, TLI=.945, CFI=.971, RMSEA=.126; 만 6 세 : χ 2 = , NFI =.950, TLI=.986, CFI= 992, RMSEA=.065). 이에비해초등학교 1 학년부터 6 학년까지는단어 인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해가각각독립적인요인으로읽기를설명 한다는가설 1 이가장적합한모델로나타났다 (1 학년 : χ 2 = , NFI=.947, TLI=.947, CFI=.975, RMSEA=.105; 2 학년 : χ 2 = , NFI=.886, TLI=.897, CFI=.941, RMSEA=.111; 3 학년 : χ 2 =19.495, NFI=.924, TLI=.973, CFI=.985, RMSEA=.053; 4 학년 : χ 2 =18.193, NFI=.953, TLI=.983, CFI=.991, RMSEA=.055; 5 학년 : χ 2 =14.095, NFI=.962, TLI=.993, CFI=.997, RMSEA=.034; 6 학년 : χ 2 =10.294, NFI=.916, TLI=1.105, CFI=1.000, RMSEA=.000). 한편, 초등학교 1 학년부터 6 학년까지의결과에서가설 2 와가설 3 을연령별로비교하여살펴보면, 초등학교 1 학년부터 3 학년까지는 읽기유창성이단어인지와하나의요인으로묶이는가설 2 가가설
6 Ae Hwa Kim, et al. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis on Reading Constructs across Ages Table 6. Result of confirmatory factor analysis across ages (grades) Age/grade Hypothesis χ 2 χ 2 /df NFI TLI CFI RMSEA 5-year-old Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis year-old Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Grade 1 Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Grade 2 Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Grade 3 Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Grade 4 Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Grade 5 Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Grade 6 Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Bold indicates the best-fitting model. NFI= normal fit index; TLI= TuckerLewis index; CFI= goodness-of-fit index; RMSEA= root mean square error of approximation. 보다적합한모델로나타났다. 그에비해초등학교 4학년부터 6학년까지는읽기이해가읽기유창성과하나의요인으로묶이는가설3 이가설2보다더적합한모델로나타났다. 논의및결론초기읽기연구에서는읽기를단어인지와읽기이해로구성된개념으로보았지만 (Hoover & Gough, 1990), 지난 20여년간의연구를통해읽기는단어인지와읽기이해이외에읽기유창성을포함하는것으로재개념화되었다 ( 예 : Bashir & Hook, 2009; MacArthur, Konold, Glutting & Alamprese, 2010; Speece et al., 2010). 이를반영하듯, 읽기장애 (reading disabilities) 는단어인지읽기장애 (reading disability: word recognition), 유창성읽기장애 (reading disability: fluency), 이해읽기장애 (reading disability: comprehension) 로분류된다 (Flanagan, Ortiz, Alfonso, & Mascolo, 2002; Fletcher et al., 2002). 이러한연구결과는미국특수교육법에도반영되어 2004 년이후로읽기유창성장애가읽기장애의하위유형으로구분되기 시작하였고, National Reading Panel (2000) 은 읽기를아동에게가르치기 (Teaching children to read) 라는제목으로성공적인읽기를위해반드시고려해야할다섯가지영역중읽기유창성을한영역으로포함하였다. 본연구에서는한글을사용하는국내아동들을대상으로읽기구조에대한연구를실시함으로써, 단어인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해로구성된 3요인읽기구조가국내에서도적용되는지를살펴보고자하였다. 이를위해본연구에서는한글읽기를시작하는시점인만 5세부터초등학교 6학년학생을대상으로읽기유창성이단어인지와읽기이해와더불어독립적인읽기구조를구성하고있는지를살펴보고, 이러한읽기구조의양상에있어연령별 ( 학년별 ) 로특징적차이가나타나는지를살펴보고자하였다. 본연구의결과를요약하면다음과같다. 첫째, 전체아동을대상으로실시한결과, 단어인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해로구성된 3요인읽기구조가가장적합한모델로나타났다. 둘째, 연령별분석결과를살펴보면, 취학전아동의경우와초등학교학생의결과가다소차별화되는것으로나타났다. 취학전 636
7 확인적요인분석을활용한연령별읽기구조에대한연구 김애화외 인만 5세와만 6세의경우에는단어인지와읽기유창성은하나의요인으로읽기이해와구분되는모델, 즉 2요인읽기구조가가장적합한모델로나타났다. 그후초등학교 1학년-6학년의경우읽기유창성은단어인지, 읽기이해와는별개의요인으로분화되어읽기를설명하는독립적인요인으로나타난것을알수있다. 구체적으로살펴보면, 초등학교 1학년부터 6학년까지는단어인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해로구성된 3요인읽기구조가가장적합한모델인것으로나타났다. 이러한결과를종합해볼때, 취학전아동의읽기구조와초등학생의읽기구조가차별적으로나타난다는것을알수있다. 즉, 취학전아동의경우에는초기읽기가발달하는단계로개별단어의음독에초점이맞춰진단계이며, 이단계에서는 글 수준에서의읽기유창성보다는 개별단어 수준에서의정확성이중요한시기이다. 따라서이시기에는단어인지와읽기유창성이단일요인으로묶이는것으로보인다. 그에비해초등학교 1학년이후에는읽기유창성이독립적인요인으로분화되어나타났는데, 이는초등학교 1학년이후에는 개별단어 수준에서의정확성이상의읽기처리능력이발달하는시기라고해석해볼수있을것이다. 이러한연구결과는읽기발달단계가높아지면서읽기유창성이독립적인요인으로분화된다는선행연구결과와맥을같이하기는하지만, 국내아동의경우에는초등학교 4학년시점이아닌초등학교 1 학년때부터읽기유창성이별개의요인으로나타났다는점에서차별성을지닌다고할수있다. 또한, 이러한연구결과의차이는영어와비교하였을때, 표층표기체계언어로서의성격을더지닌한글의특성상단어인지숙달의정도가영어에비해빠르기때문으로해석해볼수있을것이다 (Kim, Choi, Jung, & Kim, 2012; Ellis & Hooper, 2001; Goswami, Gombert, & De Barrera, 1998). 이미초등학교저학년때단어인지정확도에있어천정효과가나타난다고보고한표층표기체계언어권에서의선행연구 (Cossu et al., 1995; Landerl & Wimmer, 2008) 와관련지어볼때, 한글을사용하는아동의경우에도초등학교 1학년때부터 개발단어 읽기이상의읽기능력이발달하게된다고해석해볼수있을것이다. 한편, 한가지더주목할만한점은연령별읽기요인구조를설명하기에가장적합성이높은가설 1을제외하고가설 2와가설 3의결과를비교해보면, 초등학교 1학년부터 3학년까지는가설 2가가설 3보다적합한모델로나타난반면, 초등학교 4학년부터 6학년까지는가설 3이가설 2보다더적합한모델로나타났다는점이다. 이러한결과는한글의표층표기체계언어로서의성격으로인하여 3 요인읽기구조가초등학교 1학년때부터가장타당한모델로나타나기는하였지만, 초등학교저학년의경우에는단어인지와읽기유창성이좀더관련성을지니고, 초등학교고학년의경우에는읽기 유창성과읽기이해가좀더관련성을지니는것을알수있다. 이러한연구결과는초등학교 1학년때부터읽기유창성이독립적인요인으로분화되기는하지만, 초등학교저학년때는단어인지와읽기유창성의관련성이상대적으로더높은반면, 초등학교고학년때는읽기유창성과읽기이해의관련성이상대적으로더높은것으로해석해볼수있을것이다. 아울러, 본연구는읽기요인의발달적패턴에대한의미있는결과를제시하고있지만, 만 5세와 6세는읽기발달특성상 SD가커서다소 RMSEA가높았던점을주의해야할것이다. 또한, 본연구에서사용된읽기유창성검사는글 (text) 수준에서의유창성을측정한것이므로, 본연구의결과를토대로단어나문장수준에서의읽기유창성검사로의확장을통해좀더포괄적인범위에서읽기유창성의읽기구조에서의역할에대한분석이필요할것이다. REFERENCES Bashir, A. S., & Hook, P. E. (2009). Fluency: a key link between word identification and comprehension. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40, Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Billingsley, F., & Nagy, W. (2001). Processes underlying timing and fluency of reading: efficiency, automaticity, coordination, and morphological awareness. In M. Wolf (Ed.), Dyslexia, fluency, and the brain (pp ). Timonium, MD: York Press. Breznitz, Z. (2006). Fluency in reading: synchronization of processes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Carr, T. H., & Levy, B. A. (1990). Reading and its development: component skills approaches. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Chall, J. S. (1983). Learning to read: the great debate. New York, NY: McGraw- Hill. Cossu, G., Giuliotta, M., & Marshall, J. C. (1995). Acquisition of reading and written spelling in a transparent orthography: two non-parallel processes? Reading and Writing, 7, Ellis, N. C., & Hooper, A. M. (2001). Why learning to read is easier in Welsh than in English: orthographic transparency effects evinced with frequency-matched tests. Applied Psycholinguistics, 22, Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., Alfonso, V. C., & Mascolo, J. T. (2002). The achievement test desk reference (ATDR): comprehensive assessment and learning disabilities. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Barnes, M., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., Olson, R. K.,... & Shaywitz, B. A. (2001). Classification of learning disabilities: an 637
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9 확인적요인분석을활용한연령별읽기구조에대한연구 김애화외 Appendix 1. 본연구에사용된단어인지검사의예시 1. 고빈도음운변동의미단어검사 목요일줄넘기붙이다죽는웃는 2. 저빈도규칙의미단어검사 변질되다사례금영역유독의결하다 3. 저빈도음운변동의미단어검사 속박하다집행하다선량하다만용관람료 4. 무의미규칙단어검사 모류하다움돈관멍하다단하다부내다 5. 무의미음운변동단어검사 뭅다믹찹히겅력드넣지만늑해 639
10 Ae Hwa Kim, et al. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis on Reading Constructs across Ages Appendix 2. 본연구에사용된읽기유창성및읽기이해검사의예시 [ 읽기유창성및읽기이해검사지문 ] 제목 : 사람을구한쥐옛날호랑이가담배피던시절이었지. 어느산마을에오막살이가하나있었어. 그집에는할아버지, 할머니, 아버지, 어머니, 아이들일곱, 모두열한식구가살았어. 비록넉넉하지는않았지만열심히농사를지었지. 농사를지어거둔곡식을곳간에두었어. 그런데쥐들이모여들어몰래먹지뭐야. 다른집들은쥐를잡으려고야단이었지. 그런데이집은쥐들을그냥두었어. 저것들도살려는데어찌죽이나하면서말이야. 그래서이집에는쥐가많았지. 어느여름에큰장마가왔어. 산사태가나고홍수가나고난리였어. 하루는식구들이모두점심을먹었지. 그런데갑자기이상한일이일어났어. 곳간에있던쥐들이마당으로모였어. 한쥐위에다른쥐가탔어. 그리고그위에또다른쥐가탔지. 이렇게쥐들이목말을타고밖으로나갔어. 식구들은너무신기해서우르르따라갔지. 그사이에뒷산이무너졌어. 그래서집이흙더미에깔려망가졌지. 식구들은쥐들덕분에목숨을구했어. 쥐들도착한사람에게는은혜를갚았던거야. [ 읽기이해질문 ] 1. 이야기에나오는등장인물은누구누구인가요? 2. 언제, 어디에서있었던일인가요? 3. 사람들이왜쥐를잡으려고하였나요? 4. 여름에이마을에서어떤일이일어났나요? 5. 쥐들은어떻게밖으로나갔나요? 6. 쥐들이식구를어떻게구하였나요? 7. 식구는쥐에게어떤마음을가지게되었을까요? 그것을어떻게알수있는지글에서찾아서얘기해줄래요? 640
11 확인적요인분석을활용한연령별읽기구조에대한연구 김애화외 국문초록 확인적요인분석을활용한연령별읽기구조에대한연구 김애화 1 김의정 2 강은영 3 1 단국대학교특수교육과, 2 나사렛대학교특수교육과, 3 용인대학교교육대학원 배경및목적 : 본연구에서는읽기발달이시작되는만 5세아동부터초등학교 6학년학생을대상으로읽기구조를살펴봄으로써, 읽기발달단계에따른읽기구조가연령이증가하면서얼마나일관성있게또는차별적으로나타나는지를알아보고자하였다. 방법 : 연령별읽기구조분석을위하여확인적요인분석을실시하였다. 결과 : 전체아동을대상으로분석을실시한결과, 3요인읽기구조 ( 단어인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해가별개의요인 ) 가가장적합한모델로나타났다. 하지만, 연령별분석결과를살펴보면, 취학전아동인만 5 세와만 6세의경우에는 2요인읽기구조 ( 단어인지와읽기유창성은같은요인, 읽기이해는별개요인 ) 가가장적합한모델인것으로나타났다. 이에비해초등학교 1학년부터 6학년까지는 3요인읽기구조가가장적합한모델로나타났다. 논의및결론 : 연구결과에근거하여볼때취학전아동의경우와초등학교학생의읽기구조가다소차별화되는것으로나타났으며, 초등학교 1학년시점에서읽기유창성이읽기구조를구성하는별개의요인으로분리되는것으로나타났다. 핵심어 : 단어인지, 읽기유창성, 읽기이해, 확인적요인분석, 읽기구조 참고문헌 김계수 (2010). 구조방정식모형분석. 서울, 한나래아카데미. 김애화, 김의정 (2015). 만 4세아동의읽기성취도에대한 2년종단연구. 특수교육재활과학연구, 54, 김애화, 김의정, 유현실, 황민아 (2011). 읽기성취및읽기심리처리검사의신뢰도와타당도에관한연구 : 경기도와충청남도지역을중심으로. 언어청각장애연구, 16, 김애화, 최경순, 정현승, 김민정 (2012). 일반학생과읽기장애학생의단어인지정확도및속도특성연구. 언어청각장애연구, 17, 문수백 (2009). 구조방정식모델링의이해와적용. 서울 : 학지사. 박경숙, 김계옥, 송영준, 정동영, 정인숙 (2008). 기초학력검사 (Korea Institute for Special Education-Basic Academic Achievement Test, KISE-BATT). 안산 : 국립특수교육원. 우종필 (2012). 구조방정식모델개념과이해. 서울, 한나래아카데미. 이일화, 김동일 (2003). 읽기유창성과독해력수준과의관계 : 초등학교저학년학생을중심으로. 교육심리연구, 17,
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