Original Article Korean J Child Stud 2016;37(1): pissn: eissn: X 17 Stability in F

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1 Original Article Korean J Child Stud 2016;37(1): pissn: eissn: X 17 Stability in Friendship Patterns Among Kindergarteners North Korean Refugee Children s Separation Experiences and Level of Attachment Heuijeong Kim 1, Soonhyung Yi 2 Interdisciplinary Program in Early Childhood Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea 1 Research Institute of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea 2 1, 2 1, 2 Objective: Taking note of the fact that North Korean refugee children experience frequent separation from their mothers and long-term maternal deprivation during their childhood, this study examined the relationship between children s separation experiences and attachment. Methods: A total of 37 children aged from 5 to 9 were assessed on their attachment using the Separation Anxiety Test, and their mothers reported on their child s separation experiences. Results and Conclusion: The major findings of this study were as follows: first, the result of evaluating their attachment pattern showed North Korean refugee children had a high level of insecure attachment with a high tendency for avoidant attachment. This avoidant attachment tendency is probably due to growing up in a repressed emotional environment by frequently experiencing maternal separation in North Korea, China, and even after settling down in South Korea. Second, children s secure attachment level was higher if they did not experience separation from their mother, if their mother had a high level of education in South Korea, or if they lived with a big family. Keywords: North Korean refugee children, Separation experiences, Attachment issues ( ) 80% (Ministry of Unification, 2016),.. 2 1,,,,.., 3. Corresponding Author: Soon-Hyung Yi, Department of Child Development and Family Studies, Research Institute of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul , Korea. ysh@snu.ac.kr The Korean Association of Child Studies This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

2 Kim and Yi 18.,, (Kang, 2010; Korean Peninsula Reconciliation Center [KPRC], 2008).,., (Cho, 2012). 2 (KPRC, 2008),.,.,, (Bowlby, 1973).....,.. Bowlby (Kobak & Madsen, 2008). (Bowlby, 1969, 1982). 2 (presence) (absence) (Bowlby, 1973)..,..., (Harris & Bifulco, 1991).., (Fox, Cowell, & Johnson,

3 19 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment 1994). (Yi, Kim, & Chin, 2009). (ambiguous loss; Boss, 2007). (Suårez-Orozco, Todorova, & Louie, 2002).,,..,,,., (Rousseau, Rufagari, Bagilishya, & Measham, 2004). Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, Wall (1978).,,. Harwood, Miller, Irizarry (1997).,..,., (Howe, 1996).. (Jung, 2004)., (Main & Solomon, 1990). (Lyons-Ruth, 1996), (Main & Hesse, 1990)., (Bowlby, 1969), (Kim & Kwon, 2004), (Suårez-Orozco et al., 2002), (Kim, Lee, Park, Lee, & Jin, 2008).,, ( ) (Kim et al., 2008). (Cho & Lee, 2006) (Kim & Kwon, 2004).,,.,,,,,.?,,

4 Kim and Yi ? 1-1.? 1-2.? 2? ,.. 1.,, , 84., 2, (54.1%), 30 (43.2%), 20 (2.7%) (40.5%), (37.8%), (10.8%), (10.8%) 1996 (Yi, Cho, Kim, & Chin, 2007). (78.4%), (16.2%), (5.4%), (70.3%), 4 (16.2%), (8.1%), (5.4%). ( ) (48.6%), (27%), (18.9%), (5.4%). 67.6%, / 32.4% 1/3., 19 (51.4%), 18 (48.6%). 5 (13.5%), 6 (29.7%), 7 (18.9%), 8 (32.4%), 9 (5.4%). (67.6%), (13.5%), (13.5%), (5.4%). 43.2% 56.8%.,.,, 2.5, ,,. 2-3 (43.8%), 4-5

5 21 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment (37.5%), 6 (18.7%), 6 (18.8%), 7-12 (12.4%), (18.8%), (31.2%), 37 (18.8%).. 2 (7.1%), 3 (10.7%), 7 (25.05%) 16 (5.2%) (28.6%), 5 (17.9%), 24 3 (10.7%). 2 (7.1%), 2 (7.1%), 2 (7.1%).,,, 1 (3.6%).,, , 34., ) (Separation Anxiety Test [SAT]) Hansburg (1972) 3 Slough Greenburg (1990) 3 Choi (2014) Table 1,,.?,?.?.,,,.. Resnick (1993) 6 Kaplan (Adult Attachment Interview). Resnick Resnick (1993) ,,. 9 Table 2.,,, ( / ),. 6, 6, ( / ) 7, 6

6 Kim and Yi 22 Table 1 Picture Script of SAT Picture Introduction 1 First day at school Script I am going to show you some pictures and ask some questions. There are no right answers, so you cannot be right or wrong. Please look at the pictures and tell me your thoughts or feelings plainly. Do you see a child from the back? He (or she) is of your age and a main character of the picture. This child moves to another school because he (or she) moved to a new place. (If the interviewee is a preschooler, tell him (or her) This child starts to a kindergarten. ) His (or her) mother is leaving after taking the child to the classroom. The child parts from his (or her) mother and greet to a new teacher and new classmates for the first time. 2 Park The child and his (her) parents are in the park. His (her) mother tells the child to run off and play alone for awhile because she wants some time to talk something with father. The child is seeing his (her) parents talking apart. 3 Dinner The child was home with his (her) parents. His (her) mother tells the child to stay home alone while his (her) parents eating out for dinner. The child is seeing his (her) parents leaving to eat out. 4 Tour The child was home with his (her) parents. His (her) mother tells, giving a gift, the child that his (her) parents are going to take a trip for a month. The child is given the gift before his (her) parents are leaving for the trip. 5 Ambulance The child was home with his (her) mother. His (her) mother suddenly happens to be sick and is about to be taken to the hospital by a ambulance. The child is seeing her mother being gotten in the ambulance. 6 Grandmother s house The child came with his (her) mother to his (her) grandmother s house. His (her) mother tells the child that the child should live with grandmother from now on. The child, together with grandmother, is seeing his (her) mother leaving by bus. Note. 1, 2, 3 = Mild separation; 4, 5, 6 = Severe separation. Table 1 was cited from An fmri study of children s neural responses according to the level of attachment security, by Choi, E. J. (2014). An fmri study of children s neural responses according to the level of attachment security (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. 7.,, ( / ) 5, 7 6. /, /,,, (F1, F2, F3, F4, F5). /, /, F1 F2., F4 F5. F3. (DS) (E). /, /, DS1, DS2, DS3., E1 E2. Table (r).73, /.81,.83, /.86,.89,.86, ( / ).82,.85,.84. 1

7 23 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment Table 2 Rating Scales of SAT Rating scales 1 Emotional openness and vulnerability Rating = 1-3 : indicative of no open or vulnerable feelings(although some may be vague) Rating = 4-6 : indicate that some open or vulnerable feelings are given but perhaps the justifications are not ade or are not linked to the separation or that some feelings are still vague Rating = 7-9 : Feelings reveal vulnerability and are connected to the separation in their justification 2 Dismissing/devaluing of attachment Rating = 1-3 : there is no apparent dismissal or devaluing of attachment Rating = 4-6 : there is no explicit dismissal but it is implied in what the child says Rating = 7-9 : there is clear verbal evidence of dismissal 3 Self-blame Rating = 1-3 : the child places unfair blame on the self(pictured child) for the situation. Rating = 4-6 : the child does not place unfair blame on self, but rather unfairly blames the parents, substitute caregivers or others for the separation. Rating = 7-9 : the child does not place unfair blame on the self or others and either implies or clearly states that the situation was no one s fault. 4 Resistance/Withholding Rating = 1-3 : there is clear evidence of active resistance to the interview Rating = 4-6 : there is some withholding but no clear, active resistance Rating = 7-9 : there is no evidence suggesting withholding 6 Displacement of feeling Rating = 1-3 : for feelings that are displaced to persons outside of the separation situation or to objects in the environment Rating = 4-6 : for feelings being directed towards people involved in the separation sitation but who are not the attachment figures Rating = 7-9 : for feelings directed towards the attachment figures 7 Anxiety: optimism/pessimism Rating = 1-3 : for explicit, clearly verbalized evidence of a pessimistic belief regarding the outcome of the separation Rating = 4-6 : for the less clear, more implied evidence of generally pessimistic or neutral beliefs about the situation Rating = 7-9 : for early stated, vervalized evidence of optimistic beliefs about the nature of the separation, that is, that everything will turn out okay 8 Coherence of transcript Rule 1. Quantity : be succinct yet complete. The child is considered coherent if he/she is able to give a feeling that is accurate and appropriate to the situation and a justification that adquately captures the reason behind the feeling. Rule 2. Relevance : stay on topic Rule 3. Manner : be clear Children who violate this rule will show repeated bits of speech. Rule 4. Quality : be truthful. Children who violate this rule will show contradictions in what they say for a given picture. 9 Solution scores Rating = 7-9 : constructive solutions Rating = 4-6 : no solutions Rating = 1-3 : destructive solutions 80% ,. 82% (DS) /, /,,

8 Kim and Yi 24 Table 3 Disposition of Rating Scores Rating by Attachment Classification and Sub Scales for SAT Main class Sub-class Transcription rating scale Secure attachment Insecure attachment Secure attachment (S) Dismissing of attachment (DS) Preoccupied (E) Scales F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Scores Emotional openness & vulnerability Solution scores Coherence of transcript Anxiety (optimism/pessimism) Dismissing/devaluating of attachment Resistance/withholding Displacement of feelings Self-blame Preoccupied anger Scales DS1 DS2 DS3 Scores Emotional openness & vulnerability Solution scores Coherence of transcript Anxiety (optimism/pessimism) Dismissing/devaluating of attachment Resistance/withholding Displacement of feelings Self-blame Preoccupied anger Scales E1 Scores Emotional openness & vulnerability Solution scores Coherence of transcript Anxiety (optimism/pessimism) Dismissing/devaluating of attachment - - Resistance/withholding - - Displacement of feelings - - Self-blame Preoccupied anger E2 (E),.,. (categorization). 10 (Resnick, 1993). F., F1, F2, F3, F4, F5. F2 F1. F4

9 25 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment F5. F1 (Some setting aside of attachment),. F2 (Secure but restricted). F3 (Secure/freely valuing attachment).,. F4 (Some preoccupation with attachment figure). F5 (Somewhat resentful/preoccupied). DS E. DS DS1, DS2, DS3, DS1 (Dismissing of attachment) /.. DS2 (Devaluing of attachment). /. DS3 (Restricted in feeling).... E E1 E2, E1 (Passive),.,,.. E2 (Angry/conflicted).,.... 2) (Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test [REVT]). REVT Kim, Hong, Kim (2009) (IRB NO. 1505/ ) ,,...,,.

10 Kim and Yi 26..,.. 10 ( 1, 2, ) SAT 3...,,.,., 1..,,...,,. Table SPSS 20.0 (IBM Co., Armonk, NY),.,. 6 (Table 1) (,, ), Resnick (1993) 9 (Table 2), (Table 3).,,,., Resnick (1993)., Chi-square. Table 4 Interview Procedures Subjects Method Variable Assessment Time (min) Children (N = 40) Interview Attachment Separate anxiety test Expressive vocabulary ability Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test (REVT) 10 Mother (N = 40) Questionnaire Socio-demographical variables Socio-demographical variables 20

11 27 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment 1. 1) 10 Table 5., (27.5%), 26 (65%), 3 (7.5%). Resnick (1993). 60% , F2 8 (20.0%) F1 2 (5.0%,), F4 1 (2.5%). F3 F5., DS3 12 (30%) DS1 9 (22.5%), E1 3 (7.5%), E2 2 (7.5%). DS 52.5%. F2 20.0%. F2, /. F2 DS 72.5%., Table 5 Distribution for Attachment Classification of North Korean Refugee Children Secure attachment Variable Subcategory N (%) Secure (S) Sub total N (%) Total N (%) F1 2 (5.0) 11 (27.5) 11 (27.5) F2 8 (20.0) F3 - - F4 1 (2.5) F5 - - Insecure attachment Dismissing (DS) DS1 9 (22.5) 21 (52.5) 26 (65.0) DS2 - - DS3 12 (30.0) Preoccupied (E) E1 3 (7.5) 5 (12.5) E2 2 (5.0) Unclassified 3 (7.5) 3 (7.5) 3 (7.5) Total 40 (100.0) 40 (100.0)

12 Kim and Yi 28,. 2)? (F), (DS), (E). Resnick (1993)., (pause),.. (1) (F ).,. :..., ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ). 34 (8 ): [ ],.. 12 (8 ): [ ].,.(?). :.,,. 27 (6 ): [ ],,. 25 (6 ): [ ]. 1 (6 ): [ ]... :.. 18 (5 ): [ ]... [ ]. 24 (8 ): [ ].... [ ]...,. ( / ):.,. 24 (8 ) : [ ], 27 (6 ) : [ ]... (2) (DS ) DS,.,. (, )..

13 29 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment. /, /,, DS. :,,,,.. 8 (8 ): [ ] ,? ( ). 32 (5 ): [ ].... ( ). 23 (6 ): [ ]... (?).( ).... :.,.. 8 (8 ): [ ]?. 7 (6 ): [ ] (7 ): [ ]......,,,,. 29 (7 ): [ ]...,,. :.....,,. 11 (8 ): [ ]....( )?,.,., 20 (5 ): [ ]. [ ]. 2 (8 ): [ ] [ ] [ ] ( / ):.,.. 13 (8 ): [ ]? (6 ): [ ] [ ]....,..., ( ) (7 ): [ ] (?),. [ ].,,.. / : /...

14 Kim and Yi (6 ): [ ] , (8 ): [ ] / : SAT. / ( ) ,. 8 (8 ): [ ] ( ) (5 ): [ ]. [ ]. (?).. :...,, DS. 8 (8 ): [ ]... ( ) [ ] ,... 7 (7 ): [ ]., [ ],,. (3) (E ) E.,. DS E.,. 19 (6 ): [ ]?( ) ( ) 36 (7 ): [ ],?...? ( )...,. [ ]. 19 (6 ): [ ],,. 19 (6 ): [ ],,. 26 (7 ): [ ]..... (?)..,

15 31 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment. 37 (6 ): [ ]. [ ] ( ) (7 ): [ ]...,.... ( / ).,,. 36 (7 ): [ ], 26 (7 ): [ ], (7 ): [ ],, 26 (7 ): [ ].[ ] (6 ): ( )? ( )??!? ( ),. 19 (6 ): [ ] ,. 2. χ 2 Table 6., (Korean Hana Foundation, 2014) (12.5%), 14 (87.5%), 9 (42.9%), 11 (57.1%) (χ 2 = 4.00, df = 1, p <.05). 4 7 (21.9%), 25 (78.1%) 5 4 (80.0%), 1 (20.0%) (χ 2 = 6.99, df = 1, p <.05). 6 (19.4%), 25 (80.6%), 4 5 (83.3%), 1 (16.7%) (χ 2 = 9.85, df = 1, p <.01).,,,.,..

16 Kim and Yi 32 Table 6 Differences of Attachment Classification by Separation Experiences and Socio-Demographical Variables of North Korean Refugee Children (N = 37) Variable Sub-variables Attachment classification Secure attachment (n = 11) N (%) Insecure attachment (n = 26) N (%) Age 5-7 year 6 (27.3) 16 (72.7) year 5 (33.3) 10 (66.7) (df = 1) χ 2 Sex Boys 3 (17.6) 14 (82.3) 2.20 (df = 1) Girls 8 (40.0) 12 (60.0) Birth place South Korea 9 (36.0) 16 (64.0) 1.45 Others 2 (16.7) 10 (83.3) (df = 1) Habitation w/mother Cohabitation 10 (34.5) 19 (65.5) 1.45 Non-cohabitation 1 (12.5) 7 (87.5) (df = 1) No. of separation experiences Once and more 2 (12.5) 14 (87.5) 4.00* None 9 (42.9) 12 (57.1) (df = 1) Mothers age 40 years or below 4 (18.2) 18 (81.8) years higher 7 (46.7) 8 (53.3) (df = 1) No. of family living together (21.9) 25 (78.1) 6.99* 5 and more 4 (80.0) 1 (20.0) (df = 1) Sum of monthly household income 150 ten thousand less 9 (34.6) 17 (65.4) ten thousand and more 2 (18.2) 9 (81.8) (df = 1) Mothers education in South Korea Junior College and below 6 (19.4) 25 (80.6) 9.85** (df = 1) University and higher 5 (83.3) 1 (16.7) Mothers marital status Cohabitation 8 (36.4) 14 (63.6) 1.14 Separated/divorced 3 (20.0) 12 (80.0) (df = 1) +p <.1. *p <.05. **p <.01.

17 33 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment,. 65%..,. (Grossmann, Grossmann, Spangler, Suess, & Unzner, 1985), (Miyake, Chen, & Campos, 1985)., (Grossmann et al., 1985).., (Yi et al., 1999).... (Jeon, 2000). (Kim, Kwon, Lee, & Lee, 2014). (Lee, 2003; Yi et al., 2007).,.,.. Bowlby....., (Emotional eggs) (emotional baskets)., (Suårez- Orozco et al., 2002)...

18 Kim and Yi 34.., 4,. (Cho, 2005).,,,...,,,,.,..,.., , (snowball sampling)....,,.,,.,,..

19 35 North Korean Refugee Children and Attachment Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF- 2013S1A5A2A ). Notes This article is a part of the first author s mater s thesis submitted in Conflict of Interest No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported. References Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. New york, NY: Taylor & Francis Group. Boss, P. (2007). Ambiguous loss theory: Challenges for scholars and practitioners. Family Relations, 56(2), Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Attachment (Vol. 1). London: Hogarth Press London. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Separation (Vol. 2). London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), Cho, B. H., & Lee, J. Y. (2006). Attachment with caregivers and adjustment of Korean-Chinese children separated from their parents. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 27(4), Cho, Y. A. (2012). The Experiences of Child Reunification among North Korean Women in South Korea. Korean Journal of counseling and Psychology, 24(1), Choi, E. J. (2014). An fmri study of children s neural responses according to the level of attachment security (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. Fox, P. G., Cowell, J. M., & Johnson, M. M. (1994). Effects of family disruption on Southeast Asian refugee women. International Nursing Review, 42(1), Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., Spangler, G., Suess, G., & Unzner, L. (1985). Maternal sensitivity and newborns orientation responses as related to quality of attachment in northern Germany. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1/2), doi: / Hansburg, H. G. (1972). Adolescent separation anxiety: A method for the study of adolescent separation problems. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. Harris, T., & Bifulco, A. (1991). Loss of parent in childhood, attachment style, and depression in adulthood. In C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle (pp ). London and New York: Routledge. Harwood, R. L., Miller, J. G., & Irizarry, N. L. (1997). Culture and attachment: Perceptions of the child in context. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Howe, D. (Ed.). (1996). Attachment and loss in child and family social work. Aldershot, England: Avebury. Jeon, W. T. (2000). Adaptation of North Korean children and adolescent refugees to South Korean society. In T. W. Jeon (Ed.), For the unification of people. Seoul, Korea: Oreum. Jung, S. W. (2004). Association between attachment style of children in institutional care and psychosocial adaptation. Journal of Korean Council for Children & Rights, 8(1), Kang, J. H. (2010). Children s rights to food and health, the rights to protection, and the rights to education in North Korea kindergarten. Journal of Korean Council for Children & Rights, 14(4), Kim, H. J., Kwon, Y. J., Lee, S. H., & Lee, K. Y. (2014, November). Narrative inquiry on childhood experiences and relationships between children and parents of North Korean refugee adolescents. Poster presented at the Autumn Conference of the Korean Association of Child Studies, Seoul, Korea. Kim, S. J., & Kwon, J. H. (2004). The effects of separation experience before 6 age on friendship quality and depression of children. The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23(3), Kim, Y. M., Lee, K. S., Park, J. A., Lee, K. H., & Jin, M. K. (2008). Attachment classification and family-perceptions in foster children. The Korean Journal of Human Development, 15(3), Kim, Y. T., Hong, G. H., & Kim, K. H. (2009). Content and reliability analyses of the Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test (REVT). Communication Sciences and Disorders, 14(1), Kobak, R., & Madsen, S. (2008). Disruptions in attachment bonds: Implications for theory, research, and clinical intervention. In J. Cassidy, & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook

20 Kim and Yi 36 of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp ). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Korean Hana Foundation. (2014). Research on the actual condition of North Korean Refugee. Seoul, Korea: Korean Hana Foundation. Retrieved from SKnowledge/ArticleDetail/NODE Korean Peninsula Reconciliation Center. (2008). Report on the family environment of the second generation of North Korean refugees in China, with special emphasis on the situation of motherless children born to North Korean mothers. Seoul, Korea: Korean Peninsula Reconciliation Center. Lee, B. M. (2003). Field studies on the adaptation processes for North Korean refugee children at an educational institute (Hanawon) in South Korea. Korean Journal of Early Childhood Education, 23(2), Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(1), doi: / X Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents resolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening behavior the linking mechanism? In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp ). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp ). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Ministry of Unification. (2016). North Korea refugees Policy [Data file]. Sejong, Korea: Ministry of Unification. Retrieved from Miyake, K., Chen, S. J., & Campos, J. J. (1985). Infant temperament, mother s mode of interaction, and attachment in Japan: An interim report. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1/2), doi: / Resnick, G. (1993). Measuring attachment in early adolescence: A manual for the administration, coding and interpretation of the Separation Anxiety Test for 11 to 14 year olds. Rockville, MD: Westat, Inc. Rousseau, C., Rufagari, M. -C., Bagilishya, D., & Measham, T. (2004). Remaking family life: Strategies for re-establishing continuity among Congolese refugees during the family reunification process. Social Science & Medicine, 59(5), doi: /j.socscimed Slough, N. M., & Greenberg, M. T. (1990). Five year olds representations of separation from parents: Responses from the perspective of self and other. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1990(48), doi: /cd Suårez-Orozco, C., Todorova, I. L. G., & Louie, J. (2002). Making up for lost time: The experience of separation and reunification among immigrant families. Family Process, 41(4), doi: /j x Yi, S. H., Cho, S. C., Kim, C. D., & Chin, M. J. (2007). The social and psychological acculturation of North Korean defector families. Seoul, Korea: Seoul University Press. Yi, S. H., Kim, C. D., & Chin, M. J (2009). Family dissolution and reorganization of North Korean refugees. Seoul, Korea: Seoul University Press. Yi, S. H., Lee, K. C., Lee, K. Y., Lee, E. Y., Kim, D. N., Park, Y. S., & Choi, Y. S. (1999). Ideological characteristics and child rearing practices of North Korea. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 20(4), ORCID Heuijeong Kim Soonhyung Yi Received September 30, 2015 Revision received February 18, 2016 Accepted February 22, 2016

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